FIG. 6. The integrative model of bipolar disorder pathophysiology. Dysfunctions in crucial bodily homeostatic systems acting in an orchestrated manner feed into one another leading to a progressively worsening course of bipolar disorder. The result is a persistent symptomatic state, treatment resistance, psychosocial functional deterioration and numerous physical complications. BD: bipolar disorder, HPA axis: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, ROS: reactive oxygen species.
