Table 1.
Traditional uses and modern pharmacological effects of saffron
| Organ | Traditional uses | Modern pharmacological findings | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Immune System & Infections | Antibacterial (39, 40) | Antifungal (39, 40) | Anti-inflammation and analgesic (39) | Increases IgG levels, decreases IgM levels, decreases the percentage of basophils and increases the percentage of monocytes (142) | Antisalmonella activity, potent inhibitory effect against Staphylococcus strain and Escherichia coli (108, 109) |
| Skin | To refresh facial skin (13, 39, 40) | Healing wounds (40) | To treat purpura, eczema and erysipelas (40) | Shining and depigmentation properties due to its antioxidant effects (142) | Anti-itching and antipruritic effects (142) |
| Vision | To cure eye infection and corneal disease (39) | Useful in day blindness (40) | To treat lacrimation (40) | Reduces glutamate concentration and retinal damage due to reduction of ocular diseases such as cataracts with antioxidant properties (114, 118) | Regulates programmed cell death that protects photoreceptor cells from retinal stress (120) |
| Reproductive System | Aphrodisiac (39, 40) | To treat impotence (39, 40) | To treat uterine pain (40) | Improves sperm normal morphology, sperm motility, erectile function, and increases the libido (43, 46) | Reduces uterine pain and emotional symptoms associated with PMS (56, 57) |
| Urinary Tract and Kidney | Diuretic, purifier of kidney and bladder (39) | With honey, facilitates passage of renal stone (40) | To cure infection of urinary tract (13) | Antilithiatic effect and reduces urine protein and number of calcium deposits in the kidney tissue (51, 52) | Diuretic effect (50) |
| Gastrointestinal Tract | Strengthening liver and stomach (39) | To decrease appetite (40) | Carminative (40) | Decreases basal gastric secretion and inhibits COX1 and COX2 enzymes (63, 65) | Improves digestion with lowering pH effect (63) |
| Respiratory System | Strengthening respiratory system (39, 40) | Anti-asthma (40) | To treat cough and sore throat (39) | b-adrenoceptor stimulatory and muscarinic receptor inhibitory effect (58) | Histamine H1 receptors antagonist (58) |
| Cardiovascular System | Cardiotonic (13) | Improving circulation (40) | Preventing coagulation (39) | Cardioprotective against oxidative stress and hypotensive effect (142) | Prevents lipoprotein oxidation and atherosclerosis (142) |
| Central nervous System | To cure Obstructions inside the brain (39) | Induces better memory (39) | Hypnotic agent (40) | Decreases microglial activation, neuroprotective and inhibits hippocampal cell death (143) | Activates sleep-promoting neurons (111) |
| General | To strengthen senses (39, 40) | Anti-poisonous (39) | Anti-diabetic (39) | Decrease in exercise-induced protein oxidation due to its antioxidant and alveolar oxygen transport augmentation properties (142) | Fasting blood glucose lowering effect due to its antioxidant effect (144) |