Table 3.
Adjusted associations between psychiatric disorders and gambling severity, by race
| American Indian/Alaska Native (n=679) | White/Caucasian (n=23,920) | Interaction OR (American- Indian/Alaska-Native vs. White/Caucasian) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LRG vs. NG | ARPG vs. NG | LRG vs. NG | ARPG vs. NG | LRG vs. NG | ARPG vs. NG | |
| OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |
| Any psychiatric disorder | 2.59 (2.10, 3.19) | 14.19 (8.88, 22.68) | 1.67 (1.61, 1.73) | 3.52 (3.30, 3.75) | 1.56 (1.27, 1.91) | 4.20 (2.87, 6.15) |
| Any Axis-I disorder | 2.40 (1.93, 2.98) | 9.96 (6.08, 16.32) | 1.64 (1.58, 1.71) | 2.98 (2.73, 3.26) | 1.40 (1.14, 1.72) | 3.39 (2.22, 5.17) |
| Any mood disorder | 1.41 (1.02, 1.96) | 1.93 (0.84, 4.41) | 1.17 (1.09, 1.25) | 1.98 (1.77, 2.23) | 1.17 (0.82, 1.67) | 1.05 (0.51, 2.17) |
| Major depression | 1.68 (1.20, 2.37) | 1.57 (0.64, 3.83) | 1.06 (0.99, 1.15) | 1.64 (1.40, 1.91) | 1.55 (1.05, 2.28) | 1.01 (0.45, 2.30) |
| Dysthymia | 0.46 (0.24, 0.87) | 1.60 (0.32, 8.04) | 1.25 (1.08, 1.44) | 1.50 (1.07, 2.12) | 0.34 (0.17, 0.65) | 0.92 (0.20, 4.29) |
| Mania | 1.02 (0.38, 2.73) | 2.39 (0.64, 8.91) | 1.47 (1.27, 1.71) | 2.05 (1.41, 2.99) | 0.80 (0.38, 1.68) | 1.27 (0.32, 5.13) |
| Hypomania | 0.98 (0.61, 1.57) | 3.24 (1.61, 6.52) | 1.47 (1.23, 1.77) | 2.58 (1.94, 3.42) | 0.47 (0.30, 0.73) | 0.55 (0.26, 1.14) |
| Any anxiety disorder | 1.58 (1.13, 2.20) | 2.98 (1.21, 7.30) | 1.37 (1.29, 1.44) | 2.42 (2.15, 2.72) | 1.17 (0.88, 1.55) | 1.04 (0.46, 2.36) |
| Panic disorder | 0.88 (0.49, 1.58) | 1.06 (0.11, 10.01) | 1.13 (1.00, 1.28) | 3.89 (3.19, 4.74) | 0.82 (0.53, 1.26) | 0.26 (0.03, 2.17) |
| Social phobia | 0.60 (0.15, 2.45) | 2.65 (1.17, 5.97) | 1.22 (1.07, 1.39) | 1.89 (1.55, 2.29) | 0.50 (0.13, 1.95) | 1.28 (0.63, 2.63) |
| Specific phobia | 1.68 (1.30, 2.18) | 2.83 (1.10, 7.24) | 1.47 (1.36, 1.59) | 2.60 (2.27, 2.97) | 1.12 (0.89, 1.40) | 1.13 (0.39, 3.25) |
| Generalized-anxiety disorder | 3.84 (2.14, 6.89) | 6.99 (2.22, 22.02) | 1.30 (1.17, 1.44) | 1.58 (1.14, 2.19) | 2.85 (1.67, 4.84) | 2.81 (0.94, 8.41) |
| Any substance-use disorder | 2.34 (1.89, 2.89) | 6.39 (2.73, 14.98) | 1.81 (1.72, 1.91) | 3.18 (2.88, 3.51) | 1.30 (1.03, 1.63) | 1.89 (0.85, 4.20) |
| Alcohol abuse/dependence | 1.92 (1.18, 3.12) | 3.75 (2.36, 5.94) | 1.81 (1.69, 1.94) | 3.55 (3.11, 4.05) | 1.02 (0.64, 1.62) | 1.05 (0.62, 1.80) |
| Drug abuse/dependence | 1.20 (0.82, 1.76) | 4.50 (1.64, 12.32) | 1.71 (1.51, 1.94) | 2.74 (2.05, 3.65) | 0.84 (0.52, 1.13) | 0.87 (0.26, 2.84) |
| Nicotine dependence | 2.36 (1.95, 2.86) | 5.18 (2.24, 12.13) | 1.77 (1.67, 1.87) | 3.21 (2.88, 3.58) | 1.37 (1.09, 1.73) | 1.58 (0.71, 3.54) |
| Any Axis-II disorder | 2.12 (1.65, 2.74) | 2.30 (0.98, 5.37) | 1.39 (1.33, 1.47) | 2.19 (2.92, 3.49) | 1.57 (1.23, 2.02) | 0.86 (0.36, 2.01) |
| Cluster Ab | 1.65 (1.06, 2.56) | 1.04 (0.59, 1.85) | 1.28 (1.19, 1.37) | 2.94 (2.61, 3.30) | 1.28 (0.81, 2.03) | 0.42 (0.24, 0.72) |
| Schizoid PD | 2.01 (1.15, 3.52) | 1.41 (0.70, 2.84) | 1.36 (1.24, 1.51) | 2.92 (2.43, 3.50) | 1.52 (0.84, 2.77) | 0.58 (0.29, 1.19) |
| Paranoid PD | 1.62 (0.96, 2.72) | 1.13 (0.61, 2.12) | 1.25 (1.14, 1.36) | 3.22 (2.78, 3.74) | 1.39 (0.82, 2.38) | 0.41 (0.23, 0.74) |
| Cluster Bc | 2.61 (1.92, 3.55) | 1.57 (0.56, 4.37) | 1.55 (1.43, 1.68) | 3.28 (2.88, 3.74) | 1.77 (1.33, 2.36) | 0.41 (0.15, 1.14) |
| Antisocial PD | 3.89 (2.68, 5.65) | 2.04 (0.69, 6.05) | 1.63 (1.48, 1.80) | 3.22 (2.79, 3.73) | 2.40 (1.71, 3.39) | 0.50 (0.16, 1.53) |
| Histrionic PD | 0.09 (0.05, 0.15) | 4.61 (1.15, 18.46) | 1.32 (1.18, 1.48) | 3.52 (2.86, 4.34) | 0.08 (0.05, 0.14) | 1.07 (0.35, 3.23) |
| Cluster Cd | 1.38 (0.99, 1.91) | 2.32 (0.99, 5.42) | 1.31 (1.22, 1.40) | 2.57 (2.25, 2.95) | 1.08, 0.77, 1.51) | 1.18 (0.46, 3.07) |
| Dependent PD | 0.57 (0.07, 4.98) | ---e | 1.06 (0.86, 1.29) | 1.46 (0.84, 2.55) | 0.50 (0.06, 3.97) | ---e |
| Avoidant PD | 1.40 (0.74, 2.66) | 0.59 (0.08, 4.07) | 0.83 (0.74, 0.94) | 2.36 (1.89, 2.95) | 1.69 (0.88, 3.23) | 0.26 (0.03, 1.98) |
| Obsessive-Compulsive PD | 1.20 (0.82, 1.77) | 2.45 (1.00, 5.97) | 1.38 (1.28, 1.48) | 2.57 (2.23, 2.96) | 0.93 (0.63, 1.38) | 1.34 (0.49, 3.67) |
Note. NG=no gambling or low-frequency gambling, LRG=low-risk gambling, ARPG=at-risk, problem, or pathological gambling. Sample sizes were based on the raw data, while percentages, means, and tests of significance accounted for the sampling design and were weighted to generate nationally representative estimates. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated using logistic regression. All analyses controlled for gender, marital status, education, employment, income, and age.
a
With or without agoraphobia
b
Schizoid or paranoid personality disorder
c
Antisocial or histrionic personality disorder
d
Dependent, avoidant, or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
e
Omitted because there were zero American-Indian/Alaska-Native respondents with ARPG and dependent personality disorder.