Table 3. Risk factors for diabetes and prediabetes.
| Factors | Overall (n=16287) | Male (n=7760) | Female (n=8527) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prediabetes | Diabetes | Prediabetes | Diabetes | Prediabetes | Diabetes | |||||||
| OR | 95%CI | OR | 95%CI | OR | 95%CI | OR | 95%CI | OR | 95%CI | OR | 95%CI | |
| Karachi* | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
| Chennai | 1.69 | [1.47, 1.95] | 2.05 | [1.71, 2.46] | 1.36 | [1.12, 1.65] | 1.70 | [1.32, 2.18] | 2.08 | [1.70, 2.56] | 2.49 | [1,93, 3.20] |
| Delhi | 3.32 | [2.84, 3.88] | 4.03 | [3.32, 4.95] | 3.17 | [2.57, 3.91] | 3.97 | [3.08, 5.13] | 3.45 | [2.77, 4.30] | 4.08 | [3.07, 5.42] |
| Age, per 10 year increment | 1.41 | [1.34, 1.48] | 2.27 | [2.15, 2.40] | 1.38 | [1.28, 1.49] | 2.17 | [2.02, 2.34] | 1.43 | [1.34, 1.53] | 2.35 | [2.17, 2.55] |
| Current smoking | 0.99 | [0.85, 1.15] | 0.90 | [0.75, 1.07] | 1.02 | [0.85, 1.22] | 0.92 | [0.75, 1.12] | 1.03 | [0.63, 1.68] | 0.82 | [0.41, 1.62] |
| Family history of diabetes | 1.20 | [1.06, 1.36] | 2.17 | [1.88, 2.50] | 1.16 | [0.97, 1.38] | 2.35 | [1.92, 2.89] | 1.24 | [1.04, 1.47] | 2.00 | [1.65, 2.44] |
| Generalized obesity [BMI ≥25 kg/m2] | 1.34 | [1.15, 1.57] | 1.62 | [1.33, 1.98] | 1.11 | [0.86, 1.43] | 1.31 | [0.97, 1.76] | 1.54 | [1.28, 1.85] | 1.91 | [1.48, 2.47] |
| Abdominal obesity [Waist ≥90 for male and ≥80 cm for female] | 1.22 | [1.03, 1.44] | 1.82 | [1.48, 2.24] | 1.29 | [1.00, 1.67] | 1.74 | [1.31, 2.32] | 1.20 | [0.94, 1.54] | 2.13 | [1.58, 2.88] |
| Waist to height ratio [ratio ≥0.5] | 1.15 | [0.99, 1.34] | 1.46 | [1.18, 1.79] | 1.24 | [1.01, 1.52] | 1.65 | [1.27, 2.13] | 1.04 | [0.81, 1.35] | 1.13 | [0.79, 1.63] |
| Body fat (%) [male ≥25% and female ≥30%] | 1.25 | [1.08, 1.43] | 1.21 | [1.02, 1.44] | 1.19 | [0.92, 1.55] | 1.25 | [0.97, 1.61] | 1.30 | [1.06, 1.58] | 1.30 | [0.96, 1.77] |
| Hypertension [self-reported and/or BP ≥140/90 mm Hg] | 1.09 | [0.90, 1.31] | 1.38 | [1.13, 1.68] | 1.09 | [0.86, 1.37] | 1.24 | [0.97, 1.60] | 1.16 | [0.85, 1.58] | 1.64 | [1.17, 2.28] |
| Hypercholesterolemia [Cholesterol ≥200 mg/dl] | 1.26 | [1.12, 1.43] | 1.30 | [1.12, 1.49] | 1.29 | [1.07, 1.55] | 1.29 | [1.04, 1.59] | 1.21 | [1.02, 1.44] | 1.28 | [1.03, 1.57] |
| Hypertriglyceridemia [Triglycerides ≥150 mg/dl] | 1.43 | [1.26, 1.64] | 2.56 | [2.20, 2.98] | 1.39 | [1.17, 1.64] | 2.17 | [1.76, 2.67] | 1.57 | [1.27, 1.95] | 3.06 | [2.40, 3.89] |
| Low HDL cholesterol [HDL-C <40 mg/dl for males and <50 mg/dl for females] | 1.20 | [1.08,1.35] | 1.34 | [1.17, 1.53] | 1.22 | [1.06, 1.41] | 1.43 | [1.19, 1.72] | 1.15 | [0.96, 1.37] | 1.23 | [1.00, 1.52] |
| Adjusted F statistic with p value | 81.2; p<0.001 | 48.57; p<0.001 | 51.29; p<0.001 | |||||||||
*
Reference category; Polytomous logistic regression models used to assess the risk factors associated with diabetes and prediabetes using normoglycemia as the reference category; Odds ratio (OR) of diabetes and prediabetes and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated for all cities together after controlling for the above mentioned variables; Diabetes–self-report and/or drug treatment for diabetes and/or fasting plasma glucose (FPG)≥126 mg/dl (≥7.0 mmol/l) and/or glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) ≥6.5% (≥48 mmol/mol); Prediabetes–FPG 100–125 mg/dl (5.6-6.9 mmol/l) and/or HbA1c 5.7–6.4% (39-46 mmol/mol).