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Generation of forces during T lymphocyte/APC contacts. (A) Forces are exerted on receptor/ligand bonds by membrane T lymphocyte undulations, cell mobility, membrane protrusions/retractions, invadosome-like protrusions, and cell spreading on antigen-presenting cells (APC). (B) Upon TCR triggering, T lymphocytes develop pushing and pulling forces on TCR/pMHC bonds, which depend on polymerization of F-actin.
