Table 1.
(A) Epidemiological studies, carried out since 2010, showing the impact of diet on SCFA produced by the gut microbiota. The shaded areas indicate a change in the populations analyzed in terms of their health status. D, days; y, year. (B) Intervention studies, carried out since 2010, showing the impact of diet on SCFA produced by the gut microbiota. The shaded areas indicate a change in the populations analyzed in terms of their health status. D, day; w, week; m, month; y, year.
| (A) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Subjects, age (n) | Parameters determined | Main results | References |
| •European children, 1–6 y (15) •Burkina Faso (BF) (rural) children (15) |
3-d dietary questionnaire (from EU parents) and interview on diet (from BF mothers), fecal samples | BF children: ↑SCFA;↑Bacteroidetes, ↓Firmicutes, ↓Enterobacteriaceae; unique Prevotella, Xylanibacter (lacking in EU) | De Filippo et al., 2010 |
| •Healthy African Americans, 50–65 y (12) •Healthy South Africans (12) |
Fresh fecal samples, microbiota and SCFA analysis, cancer biomarkers |
Native Africans: ↑SCFA, total bacteria, major butyrate-producing groups, dominance of Prevotella African-Americans: dominance of Bacteroides |
Ou et al., 2013 |
| •Healthy elderly, 76–95 (32) | Food frequency questionnaire, fecal SCFA analysis | Correlation fiber and SCFA: Potato intake with total SCFA and apple with propionate | Cuervo et al., 2013 |
| •Overweight (OWO) (11) •Lean (11) |
3-d diet record, fresh fecal sample, SCFA absorption measure | OWO: ↑Age-adjusted fecal SCFA concentration, not due to higher absorption rate | Rahat-Rozenbloom et al., 2014 |
| •Overweight (OWO) (42) •Lean (52) |
3-d diet records, physical activity questionnaires, fecal samples | OWO: ↑ SCFA; dietary intakes and physical activity levels did not differ | Fernandes et al., 2014 |
| •Indian individuals, 21–62 y (20): lean (5), normal (5), obese (5), surgically treated obese (5) | Fresh fecal samples, microbiota, and SCFA analysis |
Obese: ↑ SCFA,↑Bacteroides Treated-obese: ↓SCFA ↓Bacteroides |
Patil et al., 2012 |
| •Advanced colorectal adenoma patients (A-CRA) (344) •Healthy control (344) |
Dietary fiber intake, fecal SCFA, and microbiota analysis | A-CRA group: ↓SCFA production, ↓butyrate and butyrate-producing bacteria | Chen et al., 2013 |
| •Celiac disease (CD) patients: normal diet, 13–60 y (10) and gluten-free, 21–66 y (11) •Healthy, 24–42 y (11) |
Fresh fecal samples, microbiota, and SCFA analysis |
Untreated CD and treated CD: ↑ SCFA than healthy Treated CD patients: ↓Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium diversity |
Nistal et al., 2012 |
| (B) | |||
| Subjects, age (n) | Intervention diet (period) | Main outcomes | References |
| •Healthy African Americans, 50–65 y (20) •Healthy South Africans, 50–65 y (20) |
Own diet (2 w) followed by exchange to high-fiber, low-fat African-style (2 w) Own diet (2 w) followed by high-fat, low-fiber Western-style (2 w) |
African style diet: ↑ butyrate; reciprocal changes in colon cancer risk biomarkers | O'keefe et al., 2015 |
| •Healthy volunteers (23) | Cross-over: high red meat (HRM) diet vs. HRM plus butyrylated high-amylose maize starch (HAMSB) (4/4 w wash-out) | HRM+HAMSB diet:↑ excretion of SCFA and microbiota composition changes | Le Leu et al., 2015 |
| •Healthy active volunteers (51) | Parallel-groups: butyrylated high amylose maize starch (HAMSB) vs. low-AMS (28 d) | HAMSB diet:↑free, bound and total butyrate and propionate | West et al., 2013 |
| •Healthy volunteers, 20–50 y (17) | Cross-over: whole-grain (WG) vs. refined grain (2/5 w wash out) | WG diet: ↑acetate and butyrate | Ross et al., 2013 |
| •Healthy volunteers, 18–85 y (63) | Cross-over: wheat bran extract (WBE) (3 or 10 g WBE) vs. placebo (0 g WBE; 3 w, 2 w wash-out) | Daily intake of 10 g WBE:↑bifidobacteria;↑ fecal SCFA and ↓ fecal pH | Francois et al., 2012 |
| •Healthy volunteers, 18–24 y (60) | Parallel-groups: xylo-oligosaccharide (XOS) vs. inulin-XOS mixture (INU-XOS) vs. placebo (maltodextrin; 4 w) | XOS: ↑bifidobacteria and butyrate, and ↓acetate INU-XOS: ↑SCFA and propionate, and maintain acetate level | Lecerf et al., 2012 |
| •Ulcerative colitis (UC) remission patients (19) •Healthy volunteers (10) |
Cross-over: Australian diet vs. plus wheat bran-associated fiber and high amylose-associated resistant starch (8 w) | Intervention diet: did not correct the low gut fermentation in patients with UC | James et al., 2015 |
| •Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) with constipation woman, 20–69 y (32) | Parallel-groups: Milk acidified product (MP) vs. Fermented Milk product (FMP) (4 w) | FMP:↑potential butyrate producers, and ↑Total SCFA in vitro↑butyrate | Veiga et al., 2014 |
| •IBS patients (27) •Healthy volunteers (6) |
Cross-over: Australian diet vs. low FODMAP (Fermentable Oligo-, Di-, Mono-saccharides And Polyols) diet (21/21 d wash-out) |
Australian diet:↑ relative abundance Clostridium cluster XIVa (butyrate-producer) Low FODMAP diet:↓total bacterial abundance |
Halmos et al., 2015 |
| •Cow's milk protein allergy infants (16) Healthy infants (12) |
Cross-over:hydrolysed whey protein formula (eHF) without lactose vs. eHF containing 3.8% lactose (2 m) | Addition of lactose: ↑SCFA; ↑LAB and bifidobacteria; ↓Bacteroides/clostridia | Francavilla et al., 2012 |
| •Obese women 18–65 y (30) | Parallel-groups: ITF vs. placebo (maltodextrin) (3m) | ITF:↓ total SCFA, acetate and propionate; ↑bifidobacteria | Salazar et al., 2015 |
| •Obese men, 27–73 y (14) | Cross-over: high type III resistant starch (3 w) or high in wheat bran (3 w) and ended with weight-loss (low fat and carbohydrate, high protein, 3 w) | Diet: only explain 10% total variance in microbiota; amount of propionate correlated with Bacteroidetes | Salonen et al., 2014 |
| •Obese volunteers, 45–77 y (6) | Cross-sectional: strict vegetarian diet (1 m) | ↓SCFA;↓Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio; ↑Clostridium clusters XIVa-IV; ↓Enterobacteriaceae |
Kim et al., 2013 |
| •Obese men, 21–74 y (17) | Cross-over: high-protein moderate-carbohydrate (HPMC) vs. high-protein low-carbohydrate (HPLC) (maintenance diet 7 d, 4 w) |
HPMC and HPLC diets: ↑BSCFA (respect maintenance diet) HPLC diet: ↓butyrate and ↓Roseburia/E.rectale |
Russell et al., 2011 |
| •High Metabolic Syndrome risk volunteers (88) | Parallel-groups: High saturated fat (HS) vs. high monounsaturated fat (MUFA)/high glycaemic index (GI) (HM/HGI) vs. high MUFA/low GI (HM/LGI) vs. high carbohydrate (CHO)/high GI (HC/HGI) vs. and high CHO/low GI (HC/LGI) (24 w) |
High carbohydrate diets (regardless GI):↑saccharolytic bacteria (including Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium) High fat diets:↓bacterial numbers High saturated fat diet:↑excretion of SCFA |
Fava et al., 2013 |
| •Hospitalized patients under enteral nutrition (41) | Parallel-groups: standard enteral formula vs. standard formula enriched FOS and fiber (12 d) | FOS/fiber-enriched formula: ↑butyrate | Majid et al., 2011 |