Table 3.
Summary of human observation studies examining changes in offspring epigenome associated with maternal nutrition pregnancy.
| NUTRIENT | OBSERVATION | GENE/CPG INFLUENCED | EFFECT ON OFFSPRING | STUDY SIZE (n) | REFERENCE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Folate | High and low serum folate (1st and 3rd quartile-extremes of exposure) | Global DNA Methylation, LINE-1, ZFP57 gene | In CD4+ cells there was no association of serum folate with LINE-1 or global DNA methylation status. High folate group had lower levels of DNA methylation at the ZFP57 DMR (which is associated with transient neonatal diabetes mellitus type 1). | 23 | 44 |
| 2. B12 | Serum vitamin B12 levels | Global DNA methylation, IGBP3 gene | Higher maternal serum vitamin B12 was associated with lower global DNA methylation. Higher cord serum vitamin B12 levels were associated with reduced methylation across the IGFBP3 locus. |
121 | 47 |
| 3. B2 Folate, B9 Alcohol | Dietary intake in last three months of pregnancy | ZAC1 gene | Positive correlation of dietary Vitamin B2 levels and ZAC1 DMR methylation level. No impact of taking folic acid supplements or vitamin B9 on ZAC1 methylation. Positive correlation of alcohol levels prior to and during pregnancy with ZAC1 DMR methylation level. |
254 | 48 |
| 4. B12, B2, B6, Methionine, Iron, Zinc, Cadmium, Folate Choline, Betaine | Dietary intake during weeks 0–4 and in second trimester of pregnancy | Global methylation, LINE-1 | No associations of any of the nutrients in early or mid pregnancy with LINE-1 methylation levels. In males only, betaine and choline intakes were inversely associated with LINE-1 methylation levels in early pregnancy. |
516 | 45 |
| 5. Protein, Fat Carbohydrate | Dietary intake in early pregnancy | RXRA gene | Protein and fat intake in early pregnancy had no association with cord RXRA. Low intakes of carbohydrate in early pregnancy were associated with significantly higher methylation of RXRA methylation. |
239 | 30 |
Abbreviations: CpG, site where a cytosine nucleotide occurs next to a guanine nucleotide common area for DNA methylation; DMR, differentially methylated region; LINE-1, long interspersed element-1; ZFP57, zinc finger protein 57 homolog; IGBP3, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3; ZAC1, pleomorphic adenoma gene-like 1; RXRA, retinoid X receptor alpha.