Table 2.
Proportion and univariate conditional logistic regression analysis of factors associated with neonatal death (0–28 days)
| Neonatal death 0–28 days | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
||||
| Factors and variables | Case n (%) | Control n (%) | Odds ratio (95% CI) | P |
| 1. Delivery factors | ||||
| Place of delivery | ||||
| In healthcare facility | 117 (76) | 291 (94) | ||
| At home | 35 (23) | 17 (6) | 5.26 (2.72–10.20) | 0.000 |
| Birth delivery provider | ||||
| Healthcare provider | 123 (81) | 293 (95) | ||
| Traditional birth attendant | 29 (19) | 14 (5) | 4.90 (2.44–9.86) | 0.000 |
| 2. Maternal knowledge | ||||
| Taking all recommended iron supplements | ||||
| Yes | 129 (84) | 280 (91) | ||
| No | 23 (15) | 26 (8) | 2.27 (1.13–4.54) | 0.021 |
| Knowledge of high risk pregnancy | ||||
| Yes | 100 (65) | 222 (73) | ||
| No | 53 (35) | 82 (27) | 1.59 (0.96–2.64) | 0.069 |
| Knowledge of danger signs during pregnancy | ||||
| Yes | 117 (77) | 255 (83) | ||
| No | 35 (23) | 52 (17) | 1.51 (0.89–2.55) | 0.123 |
| Knowledge of due date | ||||
| Yes | 143 (93) | 300 (97) | ||
| No | 11 (7) | 8 (3) | 2.96 (1.14–7.69) | 0.026 |
| Knowledge of danger signs in newborns | ||||
| Yes | 84 (55) | 204 (66) | ||
| No | 70 (45) | 104 (34) | 1.88 (1.19–2.97) | 0.007 |
| 3. Maternal health | ||||
| Complications during pregnancy? | ||||
| No | 134 (87) | 293 (95) | ||
| Yes | 20 (13) | 15 (5) | 2.88 (1.42–5.82) | 0.003 |
| Complications at birth? | ||||
| No | 120 (78) | 282 (92) | ||
| Yes | 34 (22) | 26 (8) | 3.38 (1.86–6.13) | 0.000 |
| Illness during pregnancy? | ||||
| Never | 101 (66) | 224 (73) | ||
| Ever | 53 (34) | 84 (27) | 1.51 (0.95–2.40) | 0.083 |
| Malaria | ||||
| No | 136 (88) | 280 (91) | ||
| Yes | 18 (12) | 28 (9) | 1.4 (0.7–2.9) | 0.327 |
| 4. Maternal characteristics | ||||
| Age at birth delivery | ||||
| 20–35 | 110 (71) | 231 (75) | ||
| <20 | 11 (7) | 30 (10) | 0.77 (0.37–1.60) | 0.487 |
| >35 | 33 (21) | 47 (15) | 1.50 (0.90–2.50) | 0.123 |
| Birth spacing | ||||
| More than 2 years | 75 (49) | 146 (47) | ||
| Less than 2 years | 20 (13) | 31 (10) | 1.27 (0.68–2.38) | 0.453 |
| Age at marriage (first) | ||||
| Over 20 | 132 (86) | 288 (94) | ||
| 20 or under | 20 (13) | 19 (6) | 2.41 (1.21–4.79) | 0.012 |
| Previous abortion? | ||||
| No | 135 (88) | 287 (93) | ||
| Yes | 19 (12) | 21 (7) | 1.91 (0.99–3.68) | 0.052 |
| Gravida | ||||
| Five or less | 129 (88) | 280 (95) | ||
| More than five | 17 (12) | 15 (5) | 2.43 (1.20–4.93) | 0.014 |
| High risk pregnancy? | ||||
| No | 92 (61) | 229 (76) | ||
| Yes | 59 (39) | 71 (24) | 2.01 (1.32–3.07) | 0.001 |
| Haemoglobin | ||||
| Normal | 29 (19) | 77 (25) | ||
| Low haemoglobin (<11) | 61 (40) | 121 (39) | 1.57 (0.85–2.91) | 0.153 |
| 5. Neonatal factors | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Female | 57 (38) | 151 (50) | ||
| Male | 93 (62) | 153 (50) | 1.60 (1.07–2.39) | 0.022 |
| Neonatal complications during birth delivery? | ||||
| No | 49 (32) | 265 (86) | ||
| Yes | 105 (68) | 43 (14) | 27.02 (11.81–61.82) | 0.000 |
| History of neonatal complications? | ||||
| No | 80 (52) | 173 (56) | ||
| Yes | 24 (16) | 18 (6) | 2.94 (1.48–5.82) | 0.002 |
| Missing | 50 (32) | 117 (38) | 0.88 (0.56–1.39) | 0.590 |
| Apgar score | ||||
| Normal | 49 (32) | 263 (85) | ||
| Low (<7) | 61 (40) | 24 (8) | 16.49 (7.80–34.85) | 0.000 |
| Missing | 44 (29) | 21 (7) | 16.62 (7.12–38.82) | 0.000 |
| Had health problems and visited healthcare provider? | ||||
| No | 54 (35) | 248 (81) | ||
| Yes | 74 (48) | 54 (18) | 6.64 (3.90–11.30) | 0.000 |
| Missing | 26 (17) | 6 (2) | 18.39 (6.97–48.48) | 0.000 |
| Initiated early breastfeeding? | ||||
| Yes | 48 (31) | 244 (79) | ||
| No | 106 (69) | 64 (21) | 10.46 (5.93–18.45) | 0.000 |
| Practiced kangaroo method? | ||||
| Yes | 24 (16) | 74 (24) | ||
| No | 105 (68) | 181 (59) | 2.31 (1.24–4.32) | 0.009 |
| No relevant response or missing | 25 (16) | 53 (17) | 1.74 (0.81–3.71) | 0.153 |
| 6. Variables outside control of health services | ||||
| Accessibility | ||||
| Distance to community health centre | ||||
| <20 km | 129 (87) | 268 (92) | ||
| ≥20 km | 20 (13) | 24 (8) | 2.79 (1.00–7.72) | 0.049 |
| Time to community health centre | ||||
| Less than 1 hour | 116 (75) | 250 (81) | ||
| More than 1 hour | 38 (25) | 58 (19) | 2.37 (1.09–5.17) | 0.030 |
| Education | ||||
| Mother graduated from primary school? | ||||
| Yes | 125 (81) | 264 (86) | ||
| No | 29 (19) | 44 (14) | 1.44 (0.83–2.47) | 0.192 |
| Both mother and father graduated from primary school? | ||||
| Yes | 115 (86) | 285 (93) | ||
| No | 19 (14) | 23 (7) | 1.86 (0.94–3.69) | 0.077 |
| Poverty variables | ||||
| Electricity ownership | ||||
| Yes | 66 (43) | 164 (53) | ||
| No | 88 (57) | 144 (47) | 1.76 (1.11–2.79) | 0.016 |
| Poverty indicator (dirt floor and no electricity) | ||||
| Own electricity and no dirt floor | 110 (71) | 242 (79) | ||
| Dirt floor and no electricity | 44 (29) | 66 (21) | 1.56 (0.96–2.52) | 0.072 |
| Income per month | ||||
| Over 1 million IDR | 17 (11) | 46 (15) | ||
| 1 million IDR or less | 109 (71) | 213 (69) | 1.48 (0.76–2.91) | 0.249 |
| Social support | ||||
| Living alone? | ||||
| Yes | 101 (66) | 174 (56) | ||
| No (living with family) | 51 (33) | 131 (43) | 0.64 (0.41–0.99) | 0.043 |
CI, confidence interval; IDR, Indonesian rupiah.