Table 1.
Comparison of Adjusted Odds Ratios by Substance and Gun-Related Behavior Group
| First Author, Year (Reference No.) | Gun-Related Behavior Category | Measure of Substance Use as an Independent Variable | Measure of Gun-Related Behavior as the Dependent Variable | AORa | 95% CI | P Valueb |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alcohol | ||||||
| Miller, 2009 (28) | Access/possession | Alcohol dependence | Home with firearms | 0.50 | 0.30, 1.00 | |
| Miller, 1999 (39) | Access/possession | At least 5 drinks in a row in past 2 weeks (yes vs. no) | Have a working firearm at college | 0.90 | 0.70, 1.20 | |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Access/possession | Non-binge drinker vs. nondrinker | Have a working firearm at college | 0.90 | ||
| Miller, 2009 (28) | Access/possession | Alcohol abuse | Home with firearms | 0.90 | 0.60, 1.30 | |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Access/possession | Binge, do not drive vs. nondrinker | Have a working firearm at college | 1.60 | <0.01 | |
| Loh, 2010 (22) | Access/possession | Binge drinking | Handgun access (could you get a handgun if you wanted to?) | 1.75 | 1.37, 2.27 | <0.001 |
| Miller, 1999 (39) | Access/possession | Need alcoholic drink first thing in the morning (yes vs. no) | Have a working firearm at college | 2.00 | 1.30, 3.10 | <0.001 |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Access/possession | Binge and drive vs. nondrinker | Have a working firearm at college | 2.30 | <0.001 | |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (female) | Carrying | Lifetime alcohol use, no. of occasions (1–4 vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 1.06 | 0.45, 2.49 | |
| Nelson, 1996 (102) | Carrying | At least 60 drinks in past month | Carried loaded firearms in past month | 1.10 | 0.40, 3.00 | |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (male) | Carrying | Lifetime alcohol use, no. of occasions (1–4 vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 1.11 | 0.70, 1.74 | |
| Johnson, 2012 (32) | Carrying | Alcohol dependence | Lifetime gun carrying | 1.25 | 0.87, 1.80 | |
| Nelson, 1996 (102) | Carrying | At least 5 drinks at least 1 time in past month | Carried loaded firearms in past month | 1.50 | 0.90, 2.40 | |
| Cunningham, 2010 (20) | Carrying | Binge drinking in past year | Carrying a gun in the past year | 1.54 | 0.93, 2.56 | <0.1 |
| Bergstein, 1996 (19) | Carrying | At least 4 drinks in at least 1 occasion in the past month | Ever carried a concealed gun | 1.80 | <0.05 | |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (male) | Carrying | Lifetime alcohol use, no. of occasions (5 or more vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 1.86 | 1.20, 2.88 | <0.01 |
| Carlini-Marlatt, 2003 (44) | Carrying | Public school: drinkers vs. abstainers | Carried a gun | 2.40 | 0.49, 11.89 | |
| Peleg-Oren, 2009 (73) | Carrying | Very early drinkers vs. early drinkers | Carried a handgun in past 30 days | 2.48 | 1.93, 3.18 | <0.001 |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (female) | Carrying | Lifetime alcohol use, no. of occasions (5 or more vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 3.68 | 1.64, 8.25 | <0.01 |
| Carlini-Marlatt, 2003 (44) | Carrying | Private school: drinkers vs. abstainers | Carried a gun | 3.80 | 0.84, 17.12 | <0.1 |
| DuRant, 1999 (76) | Carrying | Alcohol use | Ever carry a gun on school property | 4.59 | 1.27, 16.58 | <0.05 |
| Peleg-Oren, 2009 (73) | Carrying | Very early drinkers vs. nondrinkers | Carried a handgun in past 30 days | 5.56 | 3.68, 8.40 | <0.001 |
| Peleg-Oren, 2009 (73) | Carrying | Very early drinkers vs. early drinkers | Carried a gun in past 30 days | 5.65 | 3.09, 10.31 | <0.001 |
| Carlini-Marlatt, 2003 (44) | Carrying | Public school: episodic heavy drinking vs. abstainers | Carried a gun | 5.82 | 1.12, 30.30 | <0.05 |
| Carlini-Marlatt, 2003 (44) | Carrying | Private school: episodic heavy drinking vs. abstainers | Carried a gun | 17.00 | 3.86, 74.79 | <0.001 |
| Peleg-Oren, 2009 (73) | Carrying | Very early drinkers vs. nondrinkers | Carried a gun in past 30 days | 29.41 | 6.58, 125.00 | <0.001 |
| Nelson, 1996 (102) | Handling | At least 5 drinks at least 1 time in past month | Live in households with firearms always or sometimes loaded and unlocked | 1.70 | 1.30, 2.30 | <0.001 |
| Nelson, 1996 (102) | Handling | At least 60 drinks in past month | Live in households with firearms always or sometimes loaded and unlocked | 1.80 | 1.20, 2.70 | <0.01 |
| Bergstein, 1996 (19) | Handling | At least 4 drinks in at least 1 occasion in the past month | Ever handled a gun without adult knowledge/supervision | 1.90 | 1.20, 3.00 | <0.01 |
| Miller, 2004 (49) | Handling | Ever drinking | Ever handled a gun without adult knowledge/supervision | 2.90 | 1.70, 4.70 | <0.001 |
| Miller, 2004 (49) | Handling | Binge drinking in past month | Ever handled a gun without adult knowledge/supervision | 7.90 | 4.90, 12.90 | <0.001 |
| Branas, 2009 (52) | Violence | Light drinking vs. no drinking | Fatal gun assault | 0.27 | 0.02, 2.97 | |
| Branas, 2009 (52) | Violence | Drinking vs. no drinking | Fatal gun assault | 0.32 | 0.03, 3.11 | |
| Reid, 2001 (79) | Violence | Got drunk | First criminal gun use | 0.43 | <0.001 | |
| Sevigny, 2015 (80) | Violence | Used alcohol at offense | Gun use/carrying/possession during offense | 0.95 | ||
| Conner, 2014 (11) | Violence | Positive BAC | Firearm vs. hanging | 1.02 | 0.96, 1.08 | |
| Conner, 2014 (11) | Violence | Positive BAC | Firearm vs. poisoning | 1.03 | 0.97, 1.09 | |
| Piper, 2006 (64) | Violence | Alcohol detected | Firearm-related suicide vs. other methods of suicide | 1.09 | 0.94, 1.25 | |
| Hemenway, 2004 (53) | Violence | Drinker but not binge vs. nondrinker | Ever having been threatened with a gun | 1.10 | 0.60, 1.90 | |
| Branas, 2009 (52) | Violence | Light drinking vs. no drinking | Gun assault | 1.16 | 0.42, 3.22 | |
| Conner, 2014 (11) | Violence | Continuous BAC | Firearm vs. hanging | 1.17 | 1.13, 1.22 | <0.001 |
| Bovasso, 2014 (25) | Violence | Alcohol abuse or dependence | Gun threat | 1.19 | ||
| Hemenway, 2004 (53) | Violence | Binge drinker vs. nondrinker | Ever having been threatened with a gun | 1.20 | 0.70, 2.10 | |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Violence | Non-binge drinker vs. nondrinker | Threatened/otherwise victimized by gun at college | 1.20 | ||
| Branas, 2009 (52) | Violence | Drinking vs. no drinking | Gun assault | 1.33 | 0.54, 3.31 | |
| Conner, 2014 (11) | Violence | Continuous BAC | Firearm vs. poisoning | 1.47 | 1.40, 1.54 | <0.001 |
| Casiano, 2008 (26) | Violence | Alcohol abuse/dependence | Threaten others with a gun in lifetime | 1.62 | 0.98, 2.68 | <0.1 |
| Tewksbury, 2010 (81) | Violence | Alcohol present | Firearm suicide vs. hanging | 1.68 | <0.1 | |
| Lester, 2012 (63) | Violence | Alcohol abuse | Firearm suicide vs. hanging | 1.81 | ||
| Branas, 2011 (58) | Violence | Nonexcessive drinking vs. no drinking | Self-inflicted gun injury | 1.83 | 0.81, 4.13 | |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Violence | Binge, do not drive vs. nondrinker | Threatened/otherwise victimized by gun at college | 2.10 | ||
| Lester, 2012 (63) | Violence | Alcohol present | Firearm suicide vs. hanging | 2.50 | ||
| Branas, 2011 (58) | Violence | Nonexcessive drinking vs. no drinking | Gun suicides | 2.54 | 1.07, 6.00 | <0.05 |
| Lester, 2012 (63) | Violence | Drunk in prior days | Firearm suicide vs. hanging | 2.64 | ||
| Branas, 2009 (52) | Violence | Heavy drinking vs. no drinking | Gun assault | 2.67 | 0.90, 7.87 | <0.1 |
| Casiano, 2008 (26) | Violence | Alcohol dependence | Threaten others with a gun in lifetime | 2.91 | 1.92, 4.43 | <0.001 |
| Casiano, 2008 (26) | Violence | Alcohol abuse | Threaten others with a gun in lifetime | 3.21 | 2.31, 4.45 | <0.001 |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Violence | Binge and drive vs. nondrinker | Threatened/otherwise victimized by gun at college | 4.10 | <0.01 | |
| Branas, 2011 (58) | Violence | Drinking vs. no drinking | Self-inflicted gun injury | 4.23 | 2.25, 7.98 | <0.001 |
| Branas, 2011 (58) | Violence | Drinking vs. no drinking | Gun suicides | 5.94 | 2.91, 12.14 | <0.001 |
| Branas, 2009 (52) | Violence | Heavy drinking vs. no drinking | Fatal gun assault | 6.20 | 0.42, 92.47 | |
| Branas, 2011 (58) | Violence | Excessive drinking vs. no drinking | Self-inflicted gun injury | 77.11 | 8.76, 678.38 | <0.001 |
| Branas, 2011 (58) | Violence | Excessive drinking vs. no drinking | Gun suicides | 85.75 | 10.04, 732.27 | <0.001 |
| Tobacco | ||||||
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Access/possession | Cigarettes (yes vs. no in past 30 days) | Have a working firearm at college | 1.30 | ||
| Simon, 1998 (74) (female) | Carrying | No. of cigarettes smoked in lifetime (1–4 vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 0.99 | 0.49, 2.04 | |
| DuRant, 1999 (76) | Carrying | No. of days smoked in the past month | Ever carry a gun on school property | 1.34 | 1.14, 1.57 | <0.001 |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (male) | Carrying | No. of cigarettes smoked in lifetime (1–4 vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 1.89 | 1.31, 2.72 | <0.001 |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (male) | Carrying | No. of cigarettes smoked in lifetime (5 or more vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 2.22 | 1.45, 3.39 | <0.001 |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (female) | Carrying | No. of cigarettes smoked in lifetime (5 or more vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 5.12 | 2.74, 9.59 | <0.001 |
| Bergstein, 1996 (19) | Carrying | One or more cigarettes smoked last week vs. none | Ever carried a concealed gun | 5.50 | <0.05 | |
| Miller, 2004 (49) | Handling | Ever smoked cigarettes regularly (at least 1 cigarette every day for 30 days) | Ever handled a gun without adult knowledge/supervision | 2.80 | 1.70, 4.70 | <0.001 |
| Bergstein, 1996 (19) | Handling | One or more cigarettes smoked last week vs. none | Ever handled a gun without adult knowledge/supervision | 3.70 | 2.20, 6.30 | <0.001 |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Violence | Cigarettes (yes vs. no in past 30 days) | Threatened/otherwise victimized by gun at college | 0.90 | ||
| Hemenway, 2004 (53) | Violence | Ever smoked cigarettes regularly (at least 1 cigarette every day for 30 days) | Ever having been threatened with a gun | 6.20 | 3.90, 9.90 | <0.001 |
| Marijuana | ||||||
| Miller, 1999 (39) | Access/possession | Marijuana use since the beginning of the term (yes vs. no) | Have a working firearm at college | 0.90 | 0.70, 1.20 | |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Access/possession | Marijuana (yes vs. no in past 30 days) | Have a working firearm at college | 0.90 | ||
| Loh, 2010 (22) | Access/possession | Marijuana use (yes vs. no in past year) | Handgun access (could you get a handgun if you wanted to?) | 1.93 | 1.58, 2.36 | <0.001 |
| Steinman, 2003 (75) | Carrying | Marijuana use (continuous index) | Episodic gun carriers vs. noncarrier | 1.03 | 1.01, 1.06 | <0.01 |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (female) | Carrying | Lifetime marijuana use, no. of occasions (1–4 vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 1.48 | 0.72, 3.03 | |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (male) | Carrying | Lifetime marijuana use, no. of occasions (1–4 vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 2.11 | 1.37, 3.24 | <0.001 |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (male) | Carrying | Lifetime marijuana use, no. of occasions (5 or more vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 2.31 | 1.41, 3.80 | <0.001 |
| Cunningham, 2010 (20) | Carrying | Past-year marijuana use | Carrying a gun in the past year | 3.33 | 2.13, 5.26 | <0.001 |
| Simon, 1998 (74) (female) | Carrying | Lifetime marijuana use, no. of occasions (5 or more vs. 0) | Handgun carrying in 12th grade | 3.57 | 1.77, 7.22 | <0.001 |
| DuRant, 1999 (76) | Carrying | Marijuana use | Ever carry a gun on school property | 3.66 | 1.67, 8.06 | <0.001 |
| Vaughn, 2012 (77) | Carrying | Lifetime marijuana use | Handgun carrying | 4.12 | 3.16, 5.37 | <0.001 |
| Reid, 2001 (79) | Violence | Smoked marijuana | First criminal gun use | 0.37 | <0.001 | |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Violence | Marijuana (yes vs. no in past 30 days) | Threatened/otherwise victimized by gun at college | 1.90 | <0.05 | |
| Cocaine/crack | ||||||
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Access/possession | Cocaine (yes vs. no in past 30 days) | Have a working firearm at college | 0.90 | ||
| Miller, 1999 (39) | Access/possession | Cocaine or crack use since the beginning of the term (yes vs. no) | Have a working firearm at college | 1.30 | 1.00, 1.70 | <0.1 |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Access/possession | Crack (yes vs. no in past 30 days) | Have a working firearm at college | 2.90 | ||
| Narvaez, 2014 (71) | Access/possession | Lifetime crack cocaine use (yes vs. no) | Firearm possession at home | 5.38 | 1.17, 24.79 | <0.05 |
| Johnson, 2012 (32) | Carrying | Cocaine dependence | Lifetime gun carrying | 0.83 | 0.56, 1.23 | |
| DuRant, 1999 (76) | Carrying | Cocaine use | Ever carry a gun on school property | 2.96 | 1.29, 6.82 | <0.05 |
| Vaughn, 2012 (77) | Carrying | Lifetime cocaine or crack use | Handgun carrying | 7.68 | 5.06, 11.65 | <0.001 |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Violence | Cocaine (yes vs. no in past 30 days) | Threatened/otherwise victimized by gun at college | 0.90 | ||
| Piper, 2006 (64) | Violence | Cocaine detected | Firearm-related suicide vs. other methods of suicide | 1.09 | 0.90, 1.34 | |
| Piper, 2006 (64) | Violence | Cannabis detected | Firearm-related suicide vs. other methods of suicide | 1.87 | 1.44, 2.44 | <0.001 |
| Miller, 2002 (40) | Violence | Crack (yes vs. no in past 30 days) | Threatened/otherwise victimized by gun at college | 6.40 | <0.001 | |
| Drug | ||||||
| Pelucio, 2011 (78) | Access/possession | Drug use | Ability to access a loaded gun in <3 hours | 0.40 | 0.10, 1.20 | |
| Miller, 2009 (28) | Access/possession | Drug abuse | Home with firearms | 0.80 | 0.50, 1.50 | |
| Miller, 2009 (28) | Access/possession | Drug dependence | Home with firearms | 0.90 | 0.30, 2.70 | |
| Carter, 2013 (65) | Access/possession | Illicit drug use (cocaine, methamphetamine, inhalants, hallucinogens, marijuana, or street opioids) in past 6 months | Gun carrying or gun ownership within the past 6 months | 1.63 | 1.10, 2.42 | <0.05 |
| Anteghini, 2001 (29) (female) | Carrying | Drug use | Carrying a gun in the past month | 3.54 | <0.01 | |
| Anteghini, 2001 (29) (male) | Carrying | Drug use | Carrying a gun in the past month | 3.91 | <0.001 | |
| Reid, 2001 (79) | Violence | Tried hard drugs | First criminal gun use | 1.34 | <0.001 | |
| Sevigny, 2015 (80) | Violence | Used drugs at offense | Gun use/carrying/possession during offense | 1.56 | <0.05 | |
| Casiano, 2008 (26) | Violence | Drug abuse/dependence | Threaten others with a gun in lifetime | 1.74 | 0.89, 3.40 | |
| Tewksbury, 2010 (81) | Violence | Drugs present | Firearm suicide vs. hanging | 1.76 | <0.1 | |
| Bovasso, 2014 (25) | Violence | Drug abuse or dependence | Gun threat | 1.79 | ||
| Casiano, 2008 (26) | Violence | Drug abuse | Threaten others with a gun in lifetime | 3.84 | 2.65, 5.56 | <0.001 |
| Casiano, 2008 (26) | Violence | Drug dependence | Threaten others with a gun in lifetime | 5.59 | 3.53, 8.85 | <0.001 |
| Substance | ||||||
| Ilgen, 2008 (27) | Access/possession | Drug or alcohol use disorder | Had 1 or more guns in working condition in the home | 0.80 | 0.70, 1.00 | |
| Miller, 2009 (28) | Access/possession | Any of substance use disorders | Home with firearms | 0.90 | 0.60, 1.30 | |
| Kolla, 2011 (35) | Access/possession | Comorbid substance use diagnosis | Access to firearms | 1.05 | 0.43, 2.55 | |
| Kolla, 2011 (35) | Access/possession | Primary substance use disorder | Access to firearms | 3.69 | 0.90, 15.19 | <0.1 |
| Ilgen, 2008 (27) | Carrying | Drug or alcohol use disorder | Carried a gun outside the home in the past 30 days | 0.80 | 0.60, 1.20 | |
| Williams, 2002 (82) | Carrying | 30-day substance use | Ever carried (vs. never carried) | 1.38 | 1.08, 1.76 | <0.01 |
| Hemenway, 2011 (45) | Carrying | Any substance use (past 30 days, including alcohol; tobacco; or marijuana and other illegal drugs) | Ever carried a gun in the past year | 2.40 | <0.01 | |
| Williams, 2002 (82) | Carrying | 30-day substance use | Ever took to school (vs. never took) | 4.30 | 1.62, 11.45 | <0.01 |
| Williams, 2002 (82) | Carrying | 30-day substance use | Ever carried and took to school (vs. never took) | 4.41 | 1.45, 13.43 | <0.01 |
| Ilgen, 2008 (27) | Handling | Drug or alcohol use disorder | Had a gun stored unlocked and loaded | 1.00 | 0.60, 1.60 | |
| de Moore, 1999 (59) | Violence | Drug and alcohol use | Suicide by firearm vs. jumping | 0.05 | 0.00, 6.30 | |
| Hempstead, 2013 (62) | Violence | Substance abuse (including alcohol use) | Firearm suicide vs. other methods | 0.81 | 0.66, 1.01 | <0.1 |
| Callanan, 2012 (30) (mixed sexes) | Violence | History of drug abuse (recently abused alcohol, prescription drug, and illicit drug) | Suicide by firearm vs. other methods | 0.81 | 0.50, 1.30 | |
| Callanan, 2012 (30) (male) | Violence | History of drug abuse (recently abused alcohol, prescription drug, and illicit drug) | Suicide by firearm vs. other methods | 0.84 | 0.49, 1.43 | |
| Callanan, 2012 (30) (female) | Violence | History of drug abuse (recently abused alcohol, prescription drug, and illicit drug) | Suicide by firearm vs. other methods | 0.85 | 0.28, 2.59 | |
| Martone, 2013 (66) | Violence | Substance use disorder | Use of firearm in offense | 2.34 | 0.74, 7.44 | |
| Casiano, 2008 (26) | Violence | Any substance disorder | Threaten others with a gun in lifetime | 3.25 | 2.35, 4.49 | <0.001 |
Abbreviations: AOR, adjusted odds ratio; BAC, blood alcohol content; CI, confidence interval.
a Coefficients from logit regressions were converted to odds ratios.
b Only P values that were less than 0.1 are shown in the table.