Table 1.

Descriptive information about existing racial microaggressions literature

References	Nature of article		Methods		Sample characteristics		Setting/ context	Contributions
	Theory/ conceptual	Data driven	Qualitative	Quantitative	Na	Demographicsb
Sue et al. (2007a, b)	X						University	Taxonomy of Microaggressions; call for research
Constantine (2007)		X	X		24	Black clients, white therapists	University	A negative relationship between perceived racial MAs by the client therapy and working alliance as well as treatment satisfaction was found.
Constantine and Sue (2007)		X	X		10	White supervisors, black supervisees	University	7 themes were identified: invalidating racial–cultural issues, stereotypical assumptions about supervisees and clients, blaming clients, suggesting culturally inappropriate interventions.
Ruiz-Mesa (2007)		X		X	439		University	The stronger sense of cultural identity a student has, the more likely he or she is to interpret a negative learning environment, and the more negatively the student perceives the environment, the more likely he or she will perceive racial MAs.
Sue and Constantine(2007)	X					White students	University	Some of the fears of white students related to race are discussed: appearing racist, realizing they are racist, recognizing culpability, and acknowledging white privilege.
Constantine et al. (2008)		X	X		12	Black faculty	University	7 themes were identified: invisibility–hypervisibility, questioning credentials, lack of mentorship, extra service work, attributional ambiguity, constant cognizance of appearance.
Goodstein (2008)	X							In this response to Sue et al. (2007a, b), the author argues that the concept of “racial” MAs is limited and should be expanded to “cultural” MAs.
Harris (2008)	X							In this response to Sue et al. (2007a, b), the author offers alternative explanations other than race for the types of MAs discussed in Sue et al.
Nadal (2008a)		X		X	448	Chinese and Filipino	Community	Both groups reported unique experiences of racial MAs based on phenotype.
Nadal (2008b)	X							Offers suggestions for learning about and dealing with MAs in personal and professional contexts.
Schacht (2008)	X							In a response to Sue et al. (2007a, b), the author asserts that not all microinterations are negative and that when a relationship is detrimental, both parties are to blame.
Shah (2008)		X	X		10	Visible minorities female students	University	The most common form of racism reported was microaggressions, particularly invisibility, minimization of the importance of race, stereotypes, being asked to represent one’s entire group, racist humor, and colorblindness.
Sue et al. (2008a, b)		X	X		13	Black	University	5 domains related to the experience of MAs are identified: incident, perception, reaction, interpretation, and consequence.
Sue et al. (2008a, b)	X							The authors argue that the most incidents of MAs are likely to occur when the perpetrator occupies a position of power over the victim.
Sue et al. (2008c)		X	X		13	Black	University	Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy is appropriate for this population. Identified themes include: assumption of intellectual inferiority and inferior status, criminality, assumption of the universality of black Americans, and the assumption of the superiority of white race and culture.
Thomas (2008)	X							In response to Sue et al. (2007a, b), the author expresses concern for the focus on the negative aspects of race, rather than the positive. He also argues that the concept of racial MAs be broadened to include cultural considerations.
Cartwright et al. (2009)		X	X			Black faculty	University	6 of the 7 themes identified by Constantine et al. (2008) were validated and elucidated a new theme: “unequal or different treatment.”
Harris (2009)	X							Argues that Sue et al. (2007a, b) place too much importance on race.
McCabe (2009)		X	X		82	B lack, Latina/o, white students	University	Explored intersection of racial and gender MAs. Unique themes include: Black men are threatening, Latinas are exoticized, black women experience racial MAs in the classroom, white women experience MAs in male-dominated majors.
Sue (2009)	X							The author differentiates between externally labeled POC and subjectively labeled POC and suggests the racial reality of the two groups is different.
Sue et al. (2009)		X	X		10	Asian American	University	Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy is appropriate for this population. Specific themes identified include: attributional ambiguity, uncertainty about when and how to respond, and disappointment when the MA is perpetrated by someone whom the victim respects.
Sue (2009)	X							The author differentiates between externally labeled POC and subjectively labeled POC and suggests the racial reality of the two groups is different.
Sue et al. (2009)		X	X		10	Asian American	University	Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy is appropriate for this population. Specific themes identified include: attributional ambiguity, uncertainty about when and how to respond, and disappointment when the MA is perpetrated by someone whom the victim respects.
Sue et al. (2009b)		X	X		14	POC students	University	Racial MAs often precipitate difficult dialogues on race in the classroom.
Sue et al. (2009a)	X							Argues that most of the discrimination that occurs in the workplace is the result of racial MAs and not overt forms of racism.
Sue et al. (2009)		X	X		8	White faculty	University	There was a general lack of training on dealing with difficult dialogues on race in the classroom.
Yasso et al. (2009)		X	X		37	Latina/o students	University	Participants most frequently experienced interpersonal racial MAs in the form of racist jokes.
Allen (2010)		X	X		5	Black middle class students	Community	Parents providing opportunities for social and cultural experiences for children may mitigate negative psychological effects of racial MAs. Also documented are interracial MAs between minority groups
Beaumont (2010)				X	180	White POC	Community	A negative correlation was found between perception of racial MAs by the clinician in supervision and working alliance as well as disclosure by the clinician.
Grier-Reed (2010)	X							Asserts that counterspace may serve as protective factors.
Hernández et al. (2010)		X	X		23	African, Asian, Hispanic and Kurdish decent mental health workers		Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy is appropriate for these groups. Identified themes include: self-reflection and consultation, selfcare, spirituality, challenging MAs, support from white allies, documenting MAs, and mentoring.
Hill et al. (2010)	X					Alaska native		Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy is applied conceptually to Alaska Native populations in the context of historical trauma and colonial mentality.
Johnston and Nadal(2010)	X					Multiracia		Propose a taxonomy of MAs toward multiracial individuals based on Sue et al. (2007a, b). Themes unique to this population: exclusion/inclusion, exoticization/objectification, assumption of monoracial identity or mistaken identity, denial of multiracial reality, and pathologizing.
Michael-Makri(2010)		X		X	187	POC students	University	There is no difference in the rate of racial MAs between racial and ethnic groups. The most common types include: being asked to represent one’s entire group, being treated overly friendly, exoticization, infantilization, minimization, and invisibility.
Murphy-Shigematsu (2010)	X						Community	The author advocates personal reflection by supervisors to become more aware of their own biases about race.
Poon (2010)		X	X		25	Asian American students	University	Critical mass alone does not mitigate against experiencing racial MAs.
Rivera et al. (2010)		X	X		11	Latina/o	Community	Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy is appropriate. A unique type of MA identified was “characteristics of speech.”
Sauceda (2010)		X		X	309	Latina/o students	University	Strong ethnic identity is a protective factor against the negative psychological impact of MAs.
Sue et al. (2010)		X	X		14	White students	University	The participates were not able to identify difficult dialogues, which indicates the students might have a decreased awareness of racial content. Also, this study validates Sue and Constantine’s (2007) earlier findings that racial discourse makes white students anxious and uncomfortable.
Torres et al. (2010)		X	X	X	97 107	Black students	University	Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy is appropriate for this population. The authors also found that the experience of racial MAs in the form of underestimation of personal ability may carry greater risk to psychological health than other forms.
Watkins et al. (2010)		X	X		10	Black students	University	Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy is appropriate for this group. Black students devote a great deal of mental energy to determining whether or not an event was racially motivated. Also, the participants felt more comfortable with peers of color than with white students.
Balsam et al. (2011)		X	X	X	117 900 1217	POC LGBT	Community	Development and initial validation of The LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale
Barnes (2011)		X	X	X	34	Black supervisors, white supervisees	University	A negative correlation exists between the perception of racial MAs by the supervisor in supervision and the working alliance.
Burdsey (2011)		X	X		12	British Asian athletes	Community	Racial MAs exist in this population, the most common of which is racial jokes.
Clark et al. (2011)		X	X		10 blogs	American Indian	University	Sue et al.’s taxonomy is validated for American Indians. Unique themes for this group include: “extinct or vanishing,” “sociopolitical dominance,” “adoration and grief.”
Crawford (2011)		X		X	110	Black clients	University	Those who experience racial MAs are less likely to seek treatment.
De Oliveira Braga Lopez (2011)		X		X	16	Black immigrants to Portugal	Community	Sue et al.’s taxonomy is appropriate for this population. Types of MAs include: unwelcoming environment, assumption of inferiority and criminality, denial of differences, and exoticization.
Doucette (2011)		X		X	137	White students	University	Participants were less aware of subtle forms of MAs than overt instances of racism.
Gomez et al. (2011)		X	X		9	POC students	University	Sue et al.’s taxonomy is appropriate for teaching assistants of color. Identified themes include: undermining authority and questioning one’s own ability.
Granger (2011)		X	X		5	Black students	University	A heuristic inquiry of racial MAs identified the following themes: anger, fear, hopelessness, hypervigilance, culture shock, and spirituality.
Henfield (2011)		X	X		5	Black students	Community	Sue et al.’s taxonomy is appropriate for this group.
Huber (2011)		X	X		20	Latina/o students	Community	Argues Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy should be broadened to include racist nativist MAs. Experiences of these types of MAs are similar between US-born and immigrant individuals.
Hunter (2011)		X	X		20	POC employees	Community	Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) is appropriate for this group. Identified themes include: ascription of intelligence, colorblindness, criminality, denial of racism, myth of meritocracy, catholicizing, and stereotyping. Racial MAs also have a negative impact on work performance.
Huynh (2012)		X	X	X	286	Asian American Latina/o	Community	Development and initial validation of the Ethnic Microaggressions Scale.
Lin (2011)		X	X	X	347	Asian American	Community	Development and initial validation of the Asian American Racial Microaggressions Scale.
Mercer et al. (2011)		X	X	X	385	Black students	University	Development and initial validation of the inventory of microaggressions against black individuals.
Mitchell (2011)		X	X		32	African American students	Community	Both homegrown and transfer students experience racial MAs, but homegrown (native to area) students report more distress.
Morton (2011)		X		X	19	White clinicians, black clients	University	Color blindness of the clinician predicts the perpetration of racial MAs, the most common of which are the avoidance of discussing race and culture and a minimization of the importance of race and culture.
Nadal (2011a)		X		X	443	African American, Asian American, Latina/o	Community	Development and initial validation of the Racial and Ethnic Racial Microaggressions Scale.
Nadal (2011b)	X							Offers practical strategies for coping with racial MAs in the workplace
Nadal et al. (2011a)	X							Discusses Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) taxonomy in relation to workplace settings.
Nadal et al. (2011b)		X	X	X	9 262	Multiracial	University	Identifies types of racial MAs unique to multiracial individuals: exclusion from family, the “racial ideal,” and assumption of dysfunctional family dynamics.
Nnawulezi (2011)		X	X		14	POC	Community	Victims of domestic violence are reluctant to discuss racial MAs perpetrated by people in positions of authority over them.
Owen et al. (2011)		X		X	215	African American, Asian American, Latina/o, multiracial clients	University	No difference in the rate at which participants experienced racial MAs in treatment. MAs have negative relationship to psychological well-being and treatment outcome.
Robinson (2011)		X	X		8	POC students	University	The most common form of MAs experienced are microinvalidations and microinsults, both of which have a negative impact on emotional, career, social, physical, psychological, personal and spiritual wellness.
Schoulte et al. (2011)		X		X	146	POC	Community	“Cultural” MAs lead to levels of psychological distress in their victims similar to those who have suffered, betrayal, sexual abuse, and physical abuse.
Smith et al. (2011)		X		X	661	Black Male	University	Increased education is associated with increased psychological distress from racial MAs.
Sue et al. (2011)		X	X		8	POC faculty	University	Difficult dialogues were often instigated by racial MAs delivered toward students of color and the instructor. All faculty experienced an internal struggle to balance their own beliefs with an attempt to remain objective.
Wang et al. (2011)		X		X	172 327	Asian American White	Community	Asian Americans are more likely to experience negative emotions than whites when an ambiguous event is interpreted as racially motivated.
Blume et al. (2012)		X		X	178	African American, Asian American, Latina/o students	University	Racial MAs and self-efficacy are correlated with anxiety; MAs and self-efficacy are correlated with binge drinking; and MAs, selfefficacy and binge drinking are correlated with alcohol-related events.
Cappiccie et al. (2012)	X						University	Suggests the use of Critical Race Theory to evaluate cartoon films as a way to teach about racial MAs in the classroom.
Hall and Fields (2012)	X							Introduces Sue et al.’s taxonomy to the Nursing establishment and makes suggestions for research and applications.
Torres-Harding et al. (2012)		X	X	X	406	African American, Asian American, Latina/o, multiracial	Community	The development and initial validation of the Racial Microaggresssions Scale.

^aIf more than one number is listed, each number corresponds to a different component of the article

^bThe authors’ own descriptions were used here. POC refers to people of color