TABLE 2.
All participants (n = 23) |
Breakfast group (n = 11) |
Fasting group (n = 12) |
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Baseline | Change from baseline | Baseline | Change from baseline | Baseline | Change from baseline | |
Regulatory hormones | ||||||
Triiodothyronine (free-T3),2 pg/mL | 2.91 ± 0.47 | −0.04 (−0.29, 0.21) | 2.83 ± 0.34 | 0.10 (−0.38, 0.58) | 2.99 ± 0.56 | −0.15 (−0.45, 0.15) |
Thyroxine (free-T4), ng/dL | 1.20 ± 0.11 | 0.00 (−0.04, 0.04) | 1.20 ± 0.11 | 0.02 (−0.03, 0.06) | 1.20 ± 0.12 | −0.01 (−0.08, 0.06) |
Leptin,2 μg/L | 31.3 ± 26.9 | 0.8 (−4.8, 6.3) | 33.8 ± 35.7 | 6.7 (−2.6, 15.9) | 27.1 ± 17.7 | −3.5 (−10.4, 3.4) |
Total ghrelin,2 pg/mL | 416 ± 193 | 27 (−59, 113) | 360 ± 177 | −14 (−72, 45) | 456 ± 202 | 57 (−95, 209) |
Acylated ghrelin,2 pg/mL | 63.2 ± 36.0 | 2.1 (−9.3, 13.5) | 55.6 ± 34.5 | −3.2 (−14.8, 8.3) | 68.7 ± 37.7 | 6.0 (−13.4, 25.4) |
Peptide YY,2 pg/mL | 45.2 ± 26.9 | 4.2 (−2.2, 10.6) | 38.9 ± 12.4 | 3.8 (−9.9, 17.6) | 49.8 ± 33.7 | 4.5 (−3.1, 12.0) |
Active glucagon-like peptide-1,2 pg/mL | 4.51 ± 5.96 | −0.55 (−2.03, 0.93) | 2.64 ± 1.20 | 0.03 (−0.20, 0.27) | 6.37 ± 3.58 | −1.13 (−4.61, 2.35) |
Adiponectin, mg/L | 8.47 ± 4.03 | −0.03 (−0.63, 0.58) | 8.20 ± 4.73 | −0.18 (−0.86, 0.50) | 8.67 ± 3.68 | 0.08 (−0.94, 1.10) |
Cardiovascular health | ||||||
Total cholesterol,2 mg/dL | 205.8 ± 36.0 | 7.7 (1.5, 13.9)* | 223.3 ± 30.6#,† | 5.5 (−4.2, 15.2) | 191.5 ± 34.8 | 9.5 (0.1, 19.0) |
HDL cholesterol,2 mg/dL | 48.5 ± 9.8 | 0.3 (−3.0, 3.5) | 48.2 ± 9.3 | 1.0 (−2.3, 4.3) | 48.7 ± 10.6 | −0.4 (−6.2, 5.5) |
LDL cholesterol,2,3 mg/dL | 132.3 ± 31.7 | 8.4 (2.2, 14.7)* | 151.1 ± 28.6† | 5.7 (−2.6, 14.0) | 118.7 ± 27.3 | 10.4 (0.4, 20.4) |
Triacylglycerol,2 mg/dL | 141.5 ± 79.0 | −4.5 (−20.0, 11.0) | 165.6 ± 98.0 | −7.0 (−37.6, 23.6) | 121.8 ± 56.8 | −2.5 (−21.6, 16.6) |
NEFA,2 mg/dL | 13.88 ± 6.63 | −1.57 (−4.10, 0.96) | 15.46 ± 7.68 | −3.70 (−8.46, 1.07) | 12.73 ± 5.86 | −0.03 (−3.09, 3.03) |
IL-6,2 pg/mL | 2.36 ± 2.60 | −1.07 (−2.23, 0.09) | 2.68 ± 3.66 | −1.34 (−4.28, 1.61) | 2.14 ± 1.63 | −0.88 (−1.73, −0.03) |
C-reactive protein,2 mg/L | 2.60 ± 1.53 | 0.04 (−0.56, 0.63) | 3.10 ± 2.05 | −0.05 (−0.89, 0.80) | 2.19 ± 1.03 | 0.11 (−0.87, 1.08) |
Metabolic control | ||||||
Fasted glucose,2 mg/dL | 97.9 ± 6.4 | 1.6 (−1.4, 4.5) | 95.3 ± 5.3† | 1.4 (−2.2, 5.1) | 100.1 ± 6.6 | 1.7 (−3.6, 6.9) |
Fasted insulin,2 μIU/mL | 9.71 ± 4.42 | −0.14 (−2.08, 1.80) | 10.54 ± 5.88 | 0.39 (−3.44, 4.21) | 8.96 ± 2.59 | −0.62 (−2.74, 1.51) |
HOMA-IR4 | 2.35 ± 1.02 | 0.02 (−0.50, 0.54) | 2.46 ± 1.31 | 0.18 (−0.84, 1.19) | 2.24 ± 0.72 | −0.13 (−0.71, 0.45) |
C-ISI Matsuda index4 | 3.80 ± 1.60 | −0.00 (−0.54, 0.54) | 3.78 ± 2.05 | 0.05 (−0.59, 0.70) | 3.81 ± 1.09 | −0.05 (−1.08, 0.97) |
Insulin AUC glucose, mg · 120 min/dL | 6400 ± 2118 | −30 (−922, 863) | 6882 ± 2449 | −231 (−1745, 1283) | 5917 ± 1735 | 171 (−1132, 1475) |
Data are means ± SDs at baseline, with Δs and 95% CIs for the response within each group. *Significant response over time (P ≤ 0.05), #significant difference between groups at baseline (P = 0.03), and †main effect of group (P ≤ 0.05) as examined by 2-factor ANOVA. There were no significant interactions for any of the variables. C-ISI, composite insulin sensitivity index; DXA, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; NEFA, nonesterified fatty acid; OGTT, oral-glucose-tolerance test.
SI conversions: cholesterols × 0.0259 = mmol/L; triacylglycerol × 0.0113 = mmol/L; NEFA × 0.0355 = mmol/L; IL-6 × 0.131 = IU/mL; C-reactive protein × 9.524= nmol/L; glucose × 0.0555 = mmol/L; insulin × 6.0 = pmol/L; free-T3 × 1.54 = pmol/L; free-T4 × 12.87 = pmol/L; leptin × 0.0625 = nmol/L; ghrelin × 0.296 = pmol/L; peptide YY × 4.31 = pmol/L; and active glucagon-like peptide 1 × 0.303 = pmol/L.
Calculated with use of the Friedwald equation (LDL cholesterol = total cholesterol − HDL cholesterol − (triacylglycerol/2.2)].
HOMA-IR = (fasted insulin in μIU/mL × fasted glucose in mmol/L)/22.5; C-ISI Matsuda index = 10,000/SQRT (fasted glucose in mg/dL × fasted insulin in μIU/mL) × (mean glucose over 120 min OGTT mg/dL × mean insulin over 120 min OGTT in μIU/mL).