Table 1. Behaviours considered by participants as sufficient (reliable) for pain and their presence in high and/or low level pain.
| Behaviour sufficient for pain | Presence in low level pain | Presence in high level pain | Participant comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lameness | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Difficulty to jump | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Abnormal gait | Frequent | Frequent | Can be provoked by other conditions: e.g. cerebellar hypoplasia |
| Reluctant to move | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Reaction to palpation | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Withdraw/hiding | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Absence of grooming | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Playing less | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Appetite decrease | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Overall activity decrease | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Less rubbing toward people | Frequent | Frequent | |
| General mood 1 | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Temperament 2 | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Hunched up posture | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Shifting of weight | Frequent | Frequent | It is relatively subjective |
| Licking a particular body region | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Lower head posture | Frequent | Frequent | |
| Blepharospasm* | Frequent | Frequent | Caused by any chronic eye disease |
| Change in form of feeding behaviour | Rare | Frequent | Require extensive knowledge of prior feeding behaviour. Not reliable to pain |
| Avoiding bright areas | Rare | Frequent | Any disease of the eyes can cause it |
| Growling | Rare | Frequent | More useful if it is a new behaviour, related to mood |
| Groaning | Rare | Frequent | Not reliable sign of pain |
| Eyes closed | Rare | Frequent | Other possible causes for it (not specified) |
* this behaviour was considered reliable for an acute condition.
1 Mood states: i.e., enduring episodic changes in underlying affective predisposition arising as a result of a series of emotional events of congruent emotional valence, for example a tendency to be irritable from time to time as a result of pain25
2 Temperament, i.e., a general disposition or trait that is consistent across time and contexts. This indicates that the pain is persistent, or relief is only temporary, and that a state of pain has become an integral part of the animal’s constitution and its behavioural predispositions shifted accordingly to adapt to the impact of this. For example, a cat in chronic pain might be described as jumpy or irritable the whole time25.