Table 4.
Socioeconomic determinants of antenatal care and delivery care in Ghana
| Variables | Antenatal care | Delivery care | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st trimester antenatal visit | 4+ antenatal visits | Health facility deliveries | Delivery assistance by health professional | |||||
| Beta | SE | Beta | SE | Beta | SE | Beta | SE | |
| Woman’s age | ||||||||
| 20–24 | 0.0684** | [0.0302] | 0.0327 | [0.0232] | 0.0399 | [0.0311] | 0.0620** | [0.0304] |
| 25–29 | 0.1529*** | [0.0329] | 0.1155*** | [0.0236] | 0.1382*** | [0.0343] | 0.1630*** | [0.0331] |
| 30–34 | 0.1480*** | [0.0342] | 0.1303*** | [0.0247] | 0.1586*** | [0.0384] | 0.1875*** | [0.0374] |
| 35–39 | 0.1491*** | [0.0375] | 0.1461*** | [0.0238] | 0.1769*** | [0.0390] | 0.2031*** | [0.0385] |
| 40–44 | 0.1634*** | [0.0398] | 0.1504*** | [0.0227] | 0.1948*** | [0.0411] | 0.2044*** | [0.0401] |
| 45–49 | 0.0974** | [0.0430] | 0.1250*** | [0.0271] | 0.1612*** | [0.0460] | 0.1836*** | [0.0455] |
| Birth order | ||||||||
| 2nd birth order | −0.0188 | [0.0206] | −0.0637*** | [0.0195] | −0.1489*** | [0.0207] | −0.1436*** | [0.0207] |
| 3rd birth order | −0.0517** | [0.0230] | −0.1230*** | [0.0235] | −0.1786*** | [0.0232] | −0.1935*** | [0.0233] |
| 4th plus birth order | −0.1211*** | [0.0241] | −0.1316*** | [0.0218] | −0.1956*** | [0.0260] | −0.2085*** | [0.0270] |
| Woman’s education | ||||||||
| Primary | 0.0280 | [0.0182] | 0.0625*** | [0.0139] | 0.0545*** | [0.0181] | 0.0501*** | [0.0180] |
| Secondary | 0.0103 | [0.0194] | 0.1180*** | [0.0168] | 0.1461*** | [0.0197] | 0.1412*** | [0.0192] |
| Tertiary | 0.1916*** | [0.0601] | 0.2217*** | [0.0455] | 0.2352** | [0.0929] | 0.2668*** | [0.1021] |
| Partner education | ||||||||
| Primary | −0.0057 | [0.0213] | 0.0465*** | [0.0171] | 0.1100*** | [0.0226] | 0.1081*** | [0.0220] |
| Secondary | 0.0003 | [0.0202] | 0.0656*** | [0.0165] | 0.1448*** | [0.0200] | 0.1401*** | [0.0198] |
| Tertiary | 0.0406 | [0.0304] | 0.1820*** | [0.0206] | 0.2955*** | [0.0324] | 0.2871*** | [0.0315] |
| Missing husband dummy | −0.0480 | [0.0349] | −0.0690** | [0.0338] | 0.0480 | [0.0387] | 0.0507 | [0.0399] |
| Muslim dummy | −0.0509*** | [0.0168] | −0.0881*** | [0.0146] | −0.0759*** | [0.0189] | −0.0833*** | [0.0183] |
| Ethnicity | ||||||||
| Ga/Dangme | −0.0420 | [0.0307] | −0.1263*** | [0.0306] | −0.0333 | [0.0338] | −0.0374 | [0.0330] |
| Ewe and Guans | 0.0174 | [0.0176] | −0.0217 | [0.0194] | 0.0072 | [0.0242] | −0.0119 | [0.0248] |
| Northern ethnicities | 0.0565** | [0.0244] | 0.0401* | [0.0218] | 0.0345 | [0.0295] | 0.0315 | [0.0288] |
| Others | 0.1067*** | [0.0342] | 0.0398 | [0.0292] | 0.1055*** | [0.0357] | 0.0872** | [0.0350] |
| No. of elder women HH | 0.0028 | [0.0082] | 0.0062 | [0.0082] | 0.0183* | [0.0108] | 0.0256** | [0.0112] |
| Household wealth | ||||||||
| Poorer | 0.0370** | [0.0182] | 0.0396** | [0.0157] | 0.0354* | [0.0199] | 0.0341* | [0.0192] |
| Middle | 0.0412** | [0.0201] | 0.0494*** | [0.0164] | 0.1075*** | [0.0211] | 0.1057*** | [0.0205] |
| Richer | 0.0961*** | [0.0238] | 0.1376*** | [0.0178] | 0.2099*** | [0.0258] | 0.2051*** | [0.0252] |
| Richest | 0.1806*** | [0.0293] | 0.1951*** | [0.0195] | 0.2976*** | [0.0308] | 0.3051*** | [0.0301] |
| Ecological zones | ||||||||
| Capital city | −0.0426 | [0.0282] | 0.0647** | [0.0271] | 0.1215*** | [0.0393] | 0.1034*** | [0.0377] |
| Middle belt | −0.0156 | [0.0170] | 0.0554*** | [0.0157] | 0.1355*** | [0.0199] | 0.1354*** | [0.0200] |
| Northern belt | −0.0460* | [0.0265] | 0.0995*** | [0.0227] | −0.0117 | [0.0313] | −0.0109 | [0.0311] |
| Rural dummy | 0.0306 | [0.0199] | −0.0766*** | [0.0188] | −0.2226*** | [0.0235] | −0.2289*** | [0.0217] |
| NSCPHGW | 0.0319 | [0.0255] | 0.0492** | [0.0245] | 0.0829*** | [0.0291] | 0.0637** | [0.0286] |
| NSCPHFT | 0.0038 | [0.0432] | 0.0333 | [0.0596] | 0.1221* | [0.0664] | 0.1601** | [0.0651] |
| NSCPCCV | 0.0290 | [0.0401] | 0.2363*** | [0.0362] | 0.1228** | [0.0500] | 0.1514*** | [0.0488] |
| Year | ||||||||
| 1998 dummy | 0.0551** | [0.0240] | −0.0143 | [0.0201] | −0.0469* | [0.0263] | −0.0603** | [0.0264] |
| 2003 dummy | 0.1040*** | [0.0246] | 0.0278 | [0.0197] | −0.0543* | [0.0290] | −0.0564** | [0.0284] |
| 2008 dummy | 0.1917*** | [0.0229] | 0.0944*** | [0.0179] | 0.0941*** | [0.0291] | 0.1231*** | [0.0279] |
| No. of observations | 7514 | 8083 | 8263 | 8261 | ||||
| Pseudo R 2 | 0.041 | 0.145 | 0.277 | 0.278 | ||||
| Alpha | 985.1906 | |||||||
| Chi2 | 463.5 | 0.0000 | ||||||
| P-value | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | |||||
Source: Authors’ calculations
Note: *** is significant at p < 0.01, ** is significant at p < 0.05, * is significant at p < 0.10. NSCPHGW, NSCPHFT and NSCPCCV are the non-self cluster proportion of households with good water, non-self cluster proportion of households with flush toilet and non-self cluster proportion of children under five with complete vaccination, respectively
Partner’s education includes a 5th category (missing husbands) but this is excluded from the table. It was added to cater for women who do not have partners and would otherwise have been excluded from the regressions