Table 5.
Maternal risks factors associated with cleft palate.
| Risk factor | Study | Country | Categories | OR (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Smoking | Little et al., 2004 | Various | Smoking vs. none | 1.22 (1.1–1.35) |
| Leite et al., 2014 | Denmark | Smoking vs. none | 1.09 (0.88–1.35) | |
| Butali et al., 2013a | Europe | Smoking vs. none | 1.38 (1.04–1.83) | |
| Sabbagh et al., 2015 | Various | Passive smoking exposure vs. none | 2.11 (1.23–3.62) | |
| Supplements | Butali et al., 2013a | Europe | Folic acid use vs. none | 1.18 (0.89–1.57) |
| Johnson and Little, 2008 | Europe, North America, South America, Australia, Asia | Any supplement use vs. none | 0.88 (0.76–1.01) | |
| Multivitamins vs. none | 0.88 (0.74–1.04) | |||
| Folic acid supplements vs. none | 0.95 (0.79–1.14) | |||
| Preconceptionally start vs. none | 0.70 (0.51–0.98) | |||
| After 4th month of gestation vs. none | 0.99 (0.71–1.38) | |||
| Alcohol | Bell et al., 2014 | USA, Australia, Europe, India, Brazil, Japan, Canada | Any alcohol use vs. no/low alcohol use | 1.05 (0.92–1.21) |
| Alcohol use during 1st trimester vs. no/low alcohol | 1.05 (0.90–1.23) | |||
| Alcohol use during pregnancy vs. no/low alcohol | 1.06 (0.75–1.48) | |||
| Binge drinking vs. no/low alcohol (1st trimester) | 0.94 (0.74–1.21) | |||
| Romitti et al., 2007 | USA | 1–4 drinks/mo vs. none | 1.3 (1.0–1.9) | |
| 5–15 drinks/mo vs. none | 1.1 (0.8–1.7) | |||
| 16–30 drinks/mo vs. none | 1.1 (0.6–1.8) | |||
| >30 drinks/mo vs. none | 1.1 (0.6–2.2) | |||
| Diabetes mellitus | Correa et al., 2008 | USA | Pregestational DM vs. none | 1.80 (0.67–4.87) |
| Gestational DM vs. none | 1.54 (1.01–2.37) | |||
| Bánhidy et al., 2010 | Hungary | DM Type 1 vs. none | 2.2 (0.7–6.8) | |
| DM Type 2 vs. none | 0.4 (0.1–3.2) | |||
| Gestational DM vs. none | 0.3 (0.0–2.0) | |||
| Obesity | Stott-Miller et al., 2010 | Washington | Non-syndromic CP: | |
| Overweight vs. normal weight | 0.92 (0.69–1.22) | |||
| Obese vs. normal weight | 1.21 (0.85–1.72) | |||
| All types of CP: | ||||
| Overweight vs. normal weight | 0.84 (0.66–1.08) | |||
| Obese vs. normal weight | 1.04 (0.76–1.42) | |||
| Block et al., 2013 | Florida | Pre-pregnancy BMI: underweight vs. normal | 1.27 (0.91–1.77) | |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI: Overweight vs. normal | 0.97 (0.79–1.20) | |||
| Pre-pregnancy BMI: Obese vs. normal | 1.32 (1.07–1.62) | |||
| Stothard et al., 2009 | Various | Obese vs. recommended BMI | 1.23 (1.08–1.47) | |
| Overweight vs. recommended BMI | 1.02 (0.86–1.20) | |||
| Izedonmwen et al., 2015 | Various | Obese vs. normal weight | 1.14 (0.95–1.37) | |
| Overweight vs. normal weight | 0.89 (0.75–1.06) | |||
| Nonsystemic corticosteroid use | Skuladottir et al., 2014 | Norway | Syndromic CP: | |
| All CST vs. none | 1.68 (0.71–3.98) | |||
| Dermatologic CST use vs. none | 3.38 (0.87–13.09) | |||
| Non-dermatologic CST use vs. none | 1.08 (0.34–3.40) | |||
| Non-syndromic CP: | ||||
| Any type of CST use vs. none | 1.30 (0.42–4.05) | |||
| Dermatologic CST use vs. none | 2.64 (0.49–14.31) | |||
| Non-dermatologic CST use vs. none | 0.83 (0.18–3.91) | |||
| Bereavement in antenatal period | Ingstrup et al., 2013 | Denmark | Bereavement vs. none | 1.34 (0.87–2.04) |
| All types of bereavement vs. none | 0.91 (0.45–1.82) | |||
| Sudden death vs. none | 1.69 (0.63–4.51) | |||
| Death of a child vs. none | 2.36 (1.09–4.92) | |||
| Environmental conditions | Chung et al., 2013 | China (Hong Kong) | Sunshine at conception vs. none | P = 0.30 |
| Sunshine at 4 weeks vs. none | P = 0.072 | |||
| Sunshine at 8 weeks vs. none | P = 0.009 | |||
| NOx at conception vs. none | P = 0.506 | |||
| NOx at 4 weeks vs. none | P = 0.794 | |||
| NOx at 8 weeks vs. none | P = 0.343 | |||
| NO at conception vs. none | P = 0.127 | |||
| NO at 4 weeks vs. none | P = 0.795 | |||
| NO at 8 weeks vs. none | P = 0.085 | |||
| Organic solvents | Desrosiers et al., 2012 | USA | Chlorinated vs. none | 0.83 (0.50–1.38) |
| Stoddard vs. none | 1.45 (0.72–2.87) | |||
| Aromatic vs. none | 1.03 (0.49–2.20) | |||
| Zinc (plasma levels) | Munger et al., 2009 | Utah | Isolated CP: | |
| 9.3–10.4 vs. ≤ 9.2 μmol/L | 0.75 (0.36–1.57) | |||
| 10.4–11.6 vs. ≤ 9.2 μmol/L | 0.78 (0.39–1.54) | |||
| ≥11.7 vs. ≤ 9.2 μmol/L | 0.93 (0.47–1.84) | |||
| CP with Malformations: | ||||
| 9.3–10.4 vs. ≤ 9.2 μmol/L | 1.03 (0.44–2.40) | |||
| 10.4–11.6 vs. ≤ 9.2 μmol/L | 1.20 (0.55–2.65) | |||
| ≥11.7 vs. ≤ 9.2 μmol/L | 0.67 (0.27–1.67) | |||
| Tamura et al., 2005 | Philippines | 9.0–9.8 ≤ 8.9 μmol/L | 0.65 (0.16–2.68) | |
| 9.9–10.9 ≤ 8.9 μmol/L | 0.27 (0.05–1.45) | |||
| ≥ 11.0 ≤ 8.9 μmol/L | 0.07 (0.01–0.73) |