Table 5.

Biomarkers of immune activation in alcoholics.

Marker	Abbreviations	Characteristics
Macrophage receptor for haptoglobin-hemoglobin complexes	CD163	Marks Kupffer cell activation. Elevated levels are associated with poor prognosis.
Soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor	suPAR	Marks activation of inflammatory cells. Associated with disease severity.
Cytokines Proinflammatory Anti-inflammatory	TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8 IL-10, TGF-β	An altered balance in the ratio of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines is typical during the course of liver disease progression in alcoholics.
Immune responses towards ethanol metabolites	Anti-acetaldehyde adduct IgA, IgG, IgM	Anti-adduct IgAs are typical in ALD. Useful for differential diagnosis between alcoholic and non-alcoholic causes of liver disease.
High sensitivity C-reactive protein	hs-CRP	A marker of low-grade-inflammation. Associated with pro-inflammatory status, which also contributes to multiple alcohol-induced mood disorders, including depression.