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. 2014 Dec 10;1:14004. doi: 10.1038/mto.2014.4

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Copyright © 2014 The American Society of Gene & Cell Therapy

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

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Using OVs to restore systemic antitumor immunity. The immune response activated in the tumor microenvironment by OVs can be harnessed to drive therapeutic efficacy of the agents targeting T-cell activation. Infection of tumors with OVs leads to ICD, enhanced antigen presentation, APC maturation, and recruitment and activation of T cells, with changes in the microenvironment favoring the expansion of the effector rather than suppressive cell populations. Combination of OV with agents targeting costimulatory (e.g., 4-1BB, OX40, GITR) and/or coinhibitory receptors on T cells (e.g., CTLA-4, PD-1) results in more effective systemic antitumor immunity, which is active at the sites not directly accessible to OV infection. APC, antigen-presenting cell; ICD, immunogenic cell death; OV, oncolytic virus.