Table 3.
Comparison of Nutrient Intake by Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and Adequate Intake (AI) among Mothers of Children with an FASD and Exposed and Unexposed Controls, WCP, South Africa
| All women (n=205) |
p- value1 |
Mothers of Children with FASD (n=57) |
Mothers of Exposed Controls (n=42) |
Mothers of Unexposed Controls (n=106) |
p- value2 |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EAR/AI | Mean | (SD) | Mean | (SD) | Mean | (SD) | Mean | (SD) | |||
| Total Grams | NA | 1423 | (514) | -- | 1472 | (665) | 1499 | (576) | 1367 | (377) | .267 |
| Energy (kcal) | NA | 1263 | (526) | -- | 1373 | (661) | 1303 | (491) | 1187 | (445) | .084 |
| Total fat (g) | NA | 44.0 | (30.6) | -- | 47.5 | (34.4) | 43.8 | (23.4) | 42.2 | (31.0) | .576 |
| Total carbohydrate (g) | 135++ | 164.2 | (60.7) | <.001 | 176.2 | (77.0) | 166.3 | (58.4) | 156.8 | (50.4) | .146 |
| Total protein (g) | 50++ | 49.7 | (25.3) | .847 | 56.3 | (31.9) | 48.9 | (24.5) | 46.4 | (20.8) | .055 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 28++ | 11.8 | (6.4) | <.001 | 12.2 | (5.8) | 12.1 | (8.0) | 11.4 | (5.9) | .670 |
| Cholesterol (mg) | ≤300+++ | 174.9 | (139.2) | <.001 | 191.9 | (148.5) | 178.9 | (147.5) | 164.2 | (130.9) | .473 |
| Vitamin A (retinol equiv)(mcg) | 550+ | 389.6 | (439.1) | <.001 | 429.3 | (486.6) | 383.4 | (509.0) | 370.7 | (382.1) | |
| Vitamin D (mcg) | 10+ | 3.8 | (7.0) | <.001 | 6.5 | (10.9) | 2.8 | (5.1) | 2.8 | (4.1) | .003a |
| Vitamin E (mg) | 12+ | 3.3 | (2.9) | <.001 | 4.0 | (3.2) | 3.0 | (3.0) | 3.0 | (2.6) | .097 |
| Vitamin K (mcg) | 90++ | 43.7 | (42.6) | <.001 | 44.7 | (34.3) | 39.2 | (21.1) | 45.0 | (52.2) | .743 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 70+ | 36.6 | (49.6) | <.001 | 52.8 | (69.9) | 27.3 | (31.2) | 31.5 | (40.0) | .012b |
| Thiamin (mg) | 1.2+ | 1.1 | (.5) | .042 | 1.3 | (.6) | 1.2 | (.5) | 1.1 | (.4) | .033a |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1.2+ | 1.2 | (.5) | .595 | 1.2 | (.6) | 1.2 | (.6) | 1.1 | (.4) | .580 |
| Niacin (mg) | 14+ | 15.7 | (8.0) | .002 | 17.7 | (9.8) | 15.8 | (8.3) | 14.6 | (6.5) | .055 |
| Pantothenic Acid (mg) | 6++ | 4.0 | (1.9) | <.001 | 4.4 | (2.1) | 4.3 | (2.6) | 3.6 | (1.3) | .033 |
| Vitamin B6 (mg) | 1.6+ | 1.0 | (.6) | <.001 | 1.2 | (.7) | 1.0 | (.7) | .9 | (.5) | .119 |
| Total Folate (mcg) | 520+ | 237.2 | (116.8) | <.001 | 244.8 | (100.3) | 246.4 | (129.1) | 229.6 | (120.5) | .624 |
| Vitamin B12 (mcg) | 2.2+ | 3.6 | (8.5) | .020 | 6.1 | (14.9) | 2.5 | (3.6) | 2.7 | (3.6) | .032 |
| Calcium (mg) | 800+ | 433.5 | (253.4) | <.001 | 413.1 | (247.8) | 460.7 | (370.4) | 433.6 | (194.7) | .655 |
| Phosphorus (mg) | 580+ | 639.5 | (322.2) | .009 | 742.8 | (423.4) | 619.2 | (290.9) | 592.0 | (254.5) | .015a |
| Magnesium (mg) | 290+ | 148.9 | (72.3) | <.001 | 169.7 | (102.2) | 148.9 | (68.4) | 137.7 | (48.9) | .026 |
| Iron (mg) | 22+ | 8.5 | (3.9) | <.001 | 8.6 | (3.6) | 9.0 | (5.5) | 8.2 | (3.3) | .562 |
| Zinc (mg) | 9.5+ | 5.9 | (3.3) | <.001 | 5.9 | (3.5) | 6.3 | (4.3) | 5.8 | (2.8) | .759 |
| Selenium (mcg) | 49+ | 75.7 | (45.2) | <.001 | 93.4 | (58.2) | 65.4 | (27.4) | 70.2 | (40.4) | .002a,b |
| Sodium (mg) | 1500++ | 2015.1 | (871.1) | <.001 | 2311 | (1066) | 1954 | (790) | 1879 | (745) | .009a |
| Potassium (mg) | 4700++ | 1540.3 | (701.9) | <.001 | 1731 | (937) | 1571 | (755) | 1424 | (480) | .027 |
| Choline (mg) | 450++ | 219.0 | (122.7) | <.001 | 250.9 | (135.0) | 219.1 | (126.3) | 201.8 | (111.5) | .051 |
| Omega-3 fatty acids (g) | 1.4 | 1.352 | (1.696) | .689 | 1.773 | (2.003) | 1.209 | (.127) | 1.184 | (1.746) | .088 |
| Eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) (g) | NA | .094 | (.260) | -- | .215 | (.429) | .043 | (.114) | .049 | (.129) | <.001a,b |
| Docosapentanoic acid (DPA) (g) | NA | .036 | (.078) | -- | .064 | (.107) | .029 | (.089) | .023 | (.045) | .006a |
| Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (g) | NA | .149 | (.417) | -- | .316 | (.107) | .087 | (.260) | .084 | (.195) | .002a |
One sample t-test comparing the mean for all women to EAR/AI;
ANOVA comparing mothers of children with FASD, alcohol-exposed and unexposed controls.
Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) for pregnant women, aged 19–30, used for: carbohydrate, protein, vitamin A, C, D, E, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, and selenium.
Adequate Intake (AI) for pregnant women, aged 19–30, used for dietary fiber, vitamin K, pantothenic acid, sodium, potassium, choline, and omega-3 fatty acids.
IOM recommends intake to be “as Low As Possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet”. <300mg recommended by USDA.
Percentage less than EAR is not reported for nutrients where the Institute of Medicine deemed there is insufficient evidence to establish an EAR.
Significant post-hoc difference (p<.05) between:
mothers of children with FASD and unexposed controls;
mothers of children with FASD & exposed controls