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. 2015 Dec 31;62(7):837–844. doi: 10.1093/cid/civ1198

Table 4.

Risk Factors for an Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) Negative Malaria Infection, as Defined by a Positive Blood Film or RDT Test, in Pregnant Ghanaian Women at Any Stage During Pregnancy

Infecteda, RDT+ve
Infecteda, RDT-
Crude OR P Value Adjusted OR P Value
No. % No. %
Gravidity
 1 239 88.8 30 11.2 [reference] [reference]
 2 148 76.7 45 23.3 2.42 (1.46, 4.02) .001 1.85 (1.00, 3.43) .050
Gestational age at enrollment
 <20 wks 176 86.7 27 13.3 [reference] [reference]
 20–24 wks 176 81.5 40 18.5 1.48 (0.87, 2.52) .147 1.62 (0.92, 2.85) .094
 25–30 wks 37 82.2 8 17.8 1.41 (0.59, 3.35) .437 1.62 (0.65, 4.04) .300
Age group
 under 18 35 89.7 4 10.3 [reference] [reference]
 18–20 180 89.1 22 10.9 1.07 (0.35, 3.30) .907 0.95 (0.30, 3.02) .934
 21–24 108 76.6 33 23.4 2.67 (0.89, 8.08) .081 1.80 (0.54, 6.01) .339
 25 y + 66 80.5 16 19.5 2.12 (0.66, 6.83) .208 1.37 (0.37, 5.05) .639
Education
 1-None 76 75.2 25 24.8 [reference] [reference]
 2-Basic 264 87.1 39 12.9 0.45 (0.26, 0.79) .005 0.63 (0.34, 1.17) .139
 3-Secondary 40 80 10 20 0.76 (0.33, 1.74) .516 0.89 (0.36, 2.25) .812
 4-Tertiary 9 90 1 10 0.34 (0.04, 2.80) .314 0.42 (0.05, 3.89) .443
Season enrolled
 early wet 139 85.3 24 14.7 [reference] [reference]
 late wet 95 81.9 21 18.1 1.28 (0.67, 2.43) .450 1.18 (0.60, 2.33) .630
 early dry 68 82.9 14 17.1 1.19 (0.58, 2.45) .632 1.12 (0.53, 2.39) .769
 late dry 87 84.5 16 15.5 1.07 (0.54, 2.12) .857 1.07 (0.52, 2.23) .851
SES
 1-wealthiest 67 83.8 13 16.3 [reference] [reference]
 2-wealthy 71 86.6 11 13.4 0.80 (0.34, 1.91) .612 0.86 (0.35, 2.11) .738
 3-medium 88 88.9 11 11.1 0.64 (0.27, 1.53) .318 0.76 (0.31, 1.90) .558
 4-poor 74 77.1 22 22.9 1.53 (0.72, 3.28) .272 1.88 (0.83, 4.28) .132
 5-poorest 88 83 18 17 1.05 (0.48, 2.30) .895 1.08 (0.46, 2.52) .868

P-values from Wald test.

Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; RDT, rapid diagnostic test; SES, socio-economic status.

a Infected = a positive PCR test or blood film.