Table 4.
Risk Factors for an Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) Negative Malaria Infection, as Defined by a Positive Blood Film or RDT Test, in Pregnant Ghanaian Women at Any Stage During Pregnancy
| Infecteda, RDT+ve |
Infecteda, RDT- |
Crude OR | P Value | Adjusted OR | P Value | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | % | No. | % | |||||
| Gravidity | ||||||||
| 1 | 239 | 88.8 | 30 | 11.2 | [reference] | … | [reference] | … |
| 2 | 148 | 76.7 | 45 | 23.3 | 2.42 (1.46, 4.02) | .001 | 1.85 (1.00, 3.43) | .050 |
| Gestational age at enrollment | ||||||||
| <20 wks | 176 | 86.7 | 27 | 13.3 | [reference] | … | [reference] | … |
| 20–24 wks | 176 | 81.5 | 40 | 18.5 | 1.48 (0.87, 2.52) | .147 | 1.62 (0.92, 2.85) | .094 |
| 25–30 wks | 37 | 82.2 | 8 | 17.8 | 1.41 (0.59, 3.35) | .437 | 1.62 (0.65, 4.04) | .300 |
| Age group | ||||||||
| under 18 | 35 | 89.7 | 4 | 10.3 | [reference] | … | [reference] | … |
| 18–20 | 180 | 89.1 | 22 | 10.9 | 1.07 (0.35, 3.30) | .907 | 0.95 (0.30, 3.02) | .934 |
| 21–24 | 108 | 76.6 | 33 | 23.4 | 2.67 (0.89, 8.08) | .081 | 1.80 (0.54, 6.01) | .339 |
| 25 y + | 66 | 80.5 | 16 | 19.5 | 2.12 (0.66, 6.83) | .208 | 1.37 (0.37, 5.05) | .639 |
| Education | ||||||||
| 1-None | 76 | 75.2 | 25 | 24.8 | [reference] | … | [reference] | … |
| 2-Basic | 264 | 87.1 | 39 | 12.9 | 0.45 (0.26, 0.79) | .005 | 0.63 (0.34, 1.17) | .139 |
| 3-Secondary | 40 | 80 | 10 | 20 | 0.76 (0.33, 1.74) | .516 | 0.89 (0.36, 2.25) | .812 |
| 4-Tertiary | 9 | 90 | 1 | 10 | 0.34 (0.04, 2.80) | .314 | 0.42 (0.05, 3.89) | .443 |
| Season enrolled | ||||||||
| early wet | 139 | 85.3 | 24 | 14.7 | [reference] | … | [reference] | … |
| late wet | 95 | 81.9 | 21 | 18.1 | 1.28 (0.67, 2.43) | .450 | 1.18 (0.60, 2.33) | .630 |
| early dry | 68 | 82.9 | 14 | 17.1 | 1.19 (0.58, 2.45) | .632 | 1.12 (0.53, 2.39) | .769 |
| late dry | 87 | 84.5 | 16 | 15.5 | 1.07 (0.54, 2.12) | .857 | 1.07 (0.52, 2.23) | .851 |
| SES | ||||||||
| 1-wealthiest | 67 | 83.8 | 13 | 16.3 | [reference] | … | [reference] | … |
| 2-wealthy | 71 | 86.6 | 11 | 13.4 | 0.80 (0.34, 1.91) | .612 | 0.86 (0.35, 2.11) | .738 |
| 3-medium | 88 | 88.9 | 11 | 11.1 | 0.64 (0.27, 1.53) | .318 | 0.76 (0.31, 1.90) | .558 |
| 4-poor | 74 | 77.1 | 22 | 22.9 | 1.53 (0.72, 3.28) | .272 | 1.88 (0.83, 4.28) | .132 |
| 5-poorest | 88 | 83 | 18 | 17 | 1.05 (0.48, 2.30) | .895 | 1.08 (0.46, 2.52) | .868 |
P-values from Wald test.
Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; RDT, rapid diagnostic test; SES, socio-economic status.
a Infected = a positive PCR test or blood film.