Table 1.
Model | Triggers | Involved Symptoms | Related Factors | Acute /Chronic | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forced swimming test | Waters immersion | Behavioral desperation | HPA axis, corticosterone | Acute | [21a] |
Learned helplessness test | Inescapable foot shock | Behavioral desperation | LHb, VTA, serotonin, dorsal raphe nucleus, CRF | Chronic | [21b, 22] |
Social defeat stress | Aggressive counterpart | Social avoidance | BDNF, VTA mPFC, ΔFosB | Chronic | [21b, 23] |
Reward based tests | Food (sucrose), sex, drugs | Anhedonia | VTA, NAc, PFC, amygdala, Hippocampus, | Chronic | [24] |
Tail-suspension test (in mice only) | Restraints | Behavioral desperation | HPA axis | Acute | [21a] |
Early life stress | Maternal separation, prenatal stress | Social relationship disruption | HPA axis Hippocampus, serotonin | Chronic | [25] |
Olfactory bulbectomy | Lesion | Irritability | IL-1β, TNF-α, HPA axis, hippocampus | Chronic | [26] |
Hyponeophagia | Novel environment | Reduced appetite | Hippocampus | Chronic | [27] |
Chronic unpredictable stress | Unpredictable physical factors | Anergia, anhedonia | HPA axis, SNS, Lipid peroxidation | Chronic | [28] |
Abbreviation in the table: ΔFosB, a highly stable isoform of FosB which is a component of transcription factor-activator protein-1 (AP-1); BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CRF, corticotrophin releasing factor; HPA, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; IL-6, interleukin-6; LHb, lateral hebenula; mPFC, medial prefrontal cortex; PFC, prefrontal cortex; SNS, sympathetic nervous system; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; VTA, ventral tegmental area.