Table 1. The role of imaging modalities in the management and planning of lymphoedema surgery.

Modality	Benefits and indications
Doppler ultrasound	Mapping lymph node anatomy
Duplex ultrasound	Mapping lymph node anatomy; identification of lymph node vascular anatomy for planning vascularised transfer
Computed tomography (CT)	Mapping lymph node anatomy
Computed tomographic angiography (CTA)	Mapping lymph node anatomy; identification of lymph node vascular anatomy for planning vascularized transfer
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)	Diagnosis of lymphoedema; mapping lymph node anatomy
Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA)	Mapping lymph node anatomy; mapping lymph node anatomy; identification of lymph node vascular anatomy for planning vascularized transfer
Magnetic resonance lymphangiography (MRL)	Diagnosis of lymphoedema; measurements and identification of lymphatic vessel diameter and course
Indocyanine green (ICG) immunofluorescence	Identification of lymphatic vessel anatomy and pathophysiology; preoperative planning; intraoperative guidance
Lymphocyntigraphy	Useful for intraoperative guidance for ‘reverse mapping’