Table 18.
Recommended and actual intakes and functions of nutrients involved in development of peak bone mass
| Nutrients | Dietary sources | Bone-related function | RDA/AI | EARa,b | Percentage of population with usual intakes < EARc,d (%) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Children | Males | Females | Children | Males | Females | ≥2 years | 2–18 years | ≥19 years | |||
| Macronutrients | |||||||||||
| Protein (g/day) | Animal products, plants, legumes | Organic component of bone that also promotes bone mineral accrual | 1–3 years: 13 | 9–13 years: 34 | 9–13 years: 34 | 1–3 years: 0.87 | 9–13 years: 0.76 | 9–13 years: 0.76 | <3 | <3 | <3 |
| 4–8 years: 19 | 14–18 years: 52 | 14–18 years: 46 | 4–8 years: 0.76 | 14–18 years: 0.73 | 14–18 years: 0.71 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 56 | 19–30 years: 46 | 19–30 years: 0.66 | 19–30 years: 0.66 | ||||||||
| Micronutrients | |||||||||||
| Calcium (mg/day) | Dairy, dark leafy greens | Inorganic component of bone essential for rigidity, strength, and elasticity of bone tissue | 1–3 years: 700 | 9–13 years: 1300 | 9–13 years: 1300 | 1–3 years: 500 | 9–13 years: 1100 | 9–13 years: 1100 | 38 | ~47 | ~36 |
| 4–8 years: 1000 | 14–18 years: 1300 | 14–18 years: 1300 | 4–8 years: 800 | 14–18 years: 1100 | 14–18 years: 1100 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 1000 | 19–30 years: 1000 | 19–30 years: 800 | 19–30 years: 800 | ||||||||
| Phosphorus (mg/day) | Dairy, meat, processed foods, colas | Inorganic component of bone that also functions as an acid–base buffer | 1–3 years: 460 | 9–13 years: 1250 | 9–13 years: 1250 | 1–3 years: 380 | 9–13 years: 1055 | 9–13 years: 1055 | 5 | ~16 | ~1 |
| 4–8 years: 500 | 14–18 years: 1250 | 14–18 years: 1250 | 4–8 years: 405 | 14–18 years: 1055 | 14–18 years: 1055 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 700 | 19–30 years: 700 | 19–30 years: 580 | 19–30 years: 580 | ||||||||
| Magnesium (mg/day) | Dairy, dark leafy greens, nuts, whole grains | Regulates structural development of bone (i.e., hydroxyapatite) | 1–3 years: 80 | 9–13 years: 240 | 9–13 years: 240 | 1–3 years: 65 | 9–13 years: 200 | 9–13 years: 200 | 45 | ~35 | ~48 |
| 4–8 years: 130 | 14–18 years: 410 | 14–18 years: 360 | 4–8 years: 110 | 14–18 years: 340 | 14–18 years: 300 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 400 | 19–30 years: 310 | 19–30 years: 330 | 19–30 years: 255 | ||||||||
| Potassium (g/day) | Dairy, fruit (e.g., oranges), vegetables (e.g., potatoes) | Regulation of acid–base balance affecting bone metabolism | 1–3 years: 3.0 | 9–13 years: 4.5 | 9–13 years: 4.5 | – | – | – | 3 (<AI) | – | – |
| 4–8 years: 3.8 | 14–18 years: 4.7 | 14–18 years: 4.7 | |||||||||
| 19–30 years: 4.7 | 19–30 years: 4.7 | ||||||||||
| Zinc (mg/day) | Animal products, nuts, seeds | Required for collagen synthesis and bone formation | 1–3 years: 3 | 9–13 years: 8 | 9–13 years: 8 | 1–3 years: 2.5 | 9–13 years: 7.0 | 9–13 years: 7.0 | 8 | ~5 | ~8 |
| 4–8 years: 5 | 14–18 years: 11 | 14–18 years: 9 | 4–8 years: 4.0 | 14–18 years: 8.5 | 14–18 years: 7.3 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 11 | 19–30 years: 8 | 19–30 years: 9.4 | 19–30 years: 6.8 | ||||||||
| Iron (mg/day) | Animal products, fruits, vegetables, fortified grain products | Cofactor required for collagen synthesis and vitamin D activation | 1–3 years: 7 | 9–13 years: 8 | 9–13 years: 8 | 1–3 years: 3.0 | 9–13 years: 5.9 | 9–13 years: 5.7 | 5 | ~2 | ~6 |
| 4–8 years: 10 | 14–18 years: 11 | 14–18 years: 15 | 4–8 years: 4.1 | 14–18 years: 7.7 | 14–18 years: 7.9 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 8 | 19–30 years: 18 | 19–30 years: 6.0 | 19–30 years: 8.1 | ||||||||
| Manganese (mg/day) | Nuts, legumes, whole grains | Cofactor required for proteoglycan synthesis and bone formation | 1–3 years: 1.2 | 9–13 years: 1.9 | 9–13 years: 1.6 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 4–8 years: 1.5 | 14–18 years: 2.2 | 14–18 years: 1.6 | |||||||||
| 19–30 years: 2.3 | 19–30 years: 1.8 | ||||||||||
| Vitamin K (μg/day) | Green vegetables, plant oils, margarine | Cofactor required for carboxylation of osteocalcin and bone formation | 1–3 years: 30 | 9–13 years: 60 | 9–13 years: 60 | – | – | – | 35 (<AI) | – | – |
| 4–8 years: 55 | 14–18 years: 75 | 14–18 years: 75 | |||||||||
| 19–30 years: 120 | 19–30 years: 90 | ||||||||||
| Vitamin C (mg/day) | Citrus fruits, dark leafy greens | Cofactor required for cross-linking of collagen fibers | 1–3 years: 15 | 9–13 years: 45 | 9–13 years: 45 | 1–3 years: 13 | 9–13 years: 39 | 9–13 years: 39 | 25 | ~17 | ~28 |
| 4–8 years: 25 | 14–18 years: 75 | 14–18 years: 65 | 4–8 years: 22 | 14–18 years: 63 | 14–18 years: 56 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 90 | 19–30 years: 75 | 19–30 years: 75 | 19–30 years: 60 | ||||||||
| Vitamin A (μg/day) | Dairy, darkly colored fruits and leafy vegetables | Implicated in bone formation and resorption | 1–3 years: 300 | 9–13 years: 600 | 9–13 years: 600 | 1–3 years: 210 | 9–13 years: 445 | 9–13 years: 420 | 34 | ~28 | ~38 |
| 4–8 years: 400 | 14–18 years: 900 | 14–18 years: 700 | 4–8 years: 275 | 14–18 years: 630 | 14–18 years: 485 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 900 | 19–30 years: 700 | 19–30 years: 625 | 19–30 years: 500 | ||||||||
| Vitamin D (IU/day) | Fortified dairy, fatty fish | Regulates calcium homeostasis and bone metabolism | 1–3 years: 600 | 9–13 years: 600 | 9–13 years: 600 | 1–3 years: 400 | 9–13 years: 400 | 9–13 years: 400 | 70 | ~75 | ~69 |
| 4–8 years: 600 | 14–18 years: 600 | 14–18 years: 600 | 4–8 years: 400 | 14–18 years: 400 | 14–18 years: 400 | ||||||
| 19–30 years: 600 | 19–30 years: 600 | 19–30 years: 400 | 19–30 years: 400 | ||||||||
AI adequate intake, EAR estimated average requirement, RDA recommended dietary allowance
aRDA is the average daily dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97–98 %) healthy individuals in a group. It is calculated from the EAR, which is the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirements of half of the healthy individuals in a group. If sufficient scientific evidence is not available to establish an EAR, and thus calculate an RDA, an AI is usually developed. EARs have not been established for vitamin K, potassium, manganese, or other nutrients not yet evaluated via the DRI process
bData are from the Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu (modified from: http://www.iom.edu/Activities/Nutrition/SummaryDRIs/DRI-Tables.aspx)
cData are from Fulgoni [366]
dData are from Fulgoni et al. [321]