Table 5.

Calcium and exercise and bone health in children and adolescents

Reference	Study description	Population description	Number of subjects	End points	Results
Molgaard et al. 2001 [245]	1-year prospective observational study to determine effects of dietary calcium and physical activity on bone changes.	Sex: 140 boys, 192 girls Age: 5–19 years at baseline Race: Caucasian Location: Copenhagen, Denmark	332		Correlation with calcium intake, r	Correlation with physical activity, r
				Whole bone area gain adjusted for height and weight	0.03, girls	0.28
					−0.34, boys	0.28
				Total body BMC gain adjusted for bone area, height, and weight	0.21, girls	−0.06
					0.34, boys	−0.04
Carter et al. 2001 [171]	Cross-sectional study to investigate the relationship between calcium intake and BMC.	Sex: 108 boys and 119 girls Mean age: 13 years Race: Primarily Caucasian Location: Saskatoon Canada	227	Total body BMC	No association
				Lumbar spine BMC	No association
Lloyd et al. 2000 [174]	6-year prospective study to determine effects of dietary calcium and physical activity on bone changes	Sex: girls Age: 12–18 years at baseline Race: Caucasian Location: Pennsylvania	81	Total body BMC gain	NS
				Total body BMD gain	NS
				Femoral neck BMDa	r = 0.42 with exercise
Lappe et al. 2014 [172]	6-year prospective study of calcium intake and physical activity on bone accrual	Sex: boys and girls Age: 5–16 years at baseline Race: white, black, Asian, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic Location: 5 sites in the USA	1743		Mixed-model analyses
				Total body BMC gaina	Associated with physical activity in nonblacks
				Spine BMC gaina	Associated with physical activity in blacks and nonblack males
				Total hip BMC gaina	Associated with calcium in nonblack females
				Adjusted for changes in height, age, and baseline BMC	Associated with physical activity in nonblacks and black males

BMC bone mineral content, BMD bone mineral density, NS not significant

^aSignificantly greater than the control