Table 1.
Sample Characteristics
| PCE (n=185)
|
NCE (n=179)
|
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n (%) | M (SD) | n (%) | M (SD) | p | |
| Biological mother | |||||
| Mother’s age at birth | 29.77 (5.01) | 25.45 (4.72) | < .001 | ||
| Education, years | 11.56 (1.67) | 11.92 (1.38) | .02 | ||
| BSI Global Severity Indexa | 0.83 (0.75) | 0.51 (0.54) | < .001 | ||
| Married | 15 (8.11) | 28 (15.64) | .03 | ||
| Low SES | 180 (97.83) | 175 (97.77) | .97 | ||
| African-American | 152 (82.16) | 146 (81.56) | .88 | ||
| Substance use during pregnancyab | |||||
| Tobacco, cigarettes per day | 157 (84.86) | 11.55 (11.08) | 69 (38.55) | 3.85 (7.13) | < .001 |
| Alcohol, drinks per week | 145 (78.38) | 9.80 (17.64) | 72 (40.22) | 1.38 (4.64) | < .001 |
| Marijuana, joints per week | 77 (41.62) | 1.35 (3.48) | 16 (8.94) | 0.61 (3.55) | < .001 |
| Cocaine, units per week | 185 (100) | 22.61 (38.05) | --- | --- | --- |
| Caregiver at age 12 | |||||
| Education, years | 12.04 (2.39) | 12.74 (1.89) | .003 | ||
| BSI Global Severity Index | 0.35 (0.45) | 0.36 (0.49) | .95 | ||
| HOME environment | 47.83 (6.86) | 49.06 (6.28) | .07 | ||
| Substance use in the past 30 daysabc | |||||
| Tobacco, cigarettes per day | 86 (46.49) | 5.30 (7.41) | 64 (35.75) | 3.83 (6.72) | .04 |
| Alcohol, dose per week | 53 (28.65) | 1.45 (3.74) | 57 (31.84) | 1.75 (5.54) | .51 |
| Marijuana, dose per week | 8 (4.32) | 0.91 (7.18) | 4 (2.23) | 0.10 (1.09) | .26 |
| Adolescents | |||||
| Gestational age, weeks | 37.82 (2.78) | 38.47 (2.88) | .03 | ||
| Hobel Neonatal Risk score | 7.27 (15.70) | 5.88 (15.95) | .40 | ||
| Birth weight, gramsd | 2714 (645) | 3104 (702) | < .001 | ||
| Birth length, cmd | 47.33 (3.89) | 49.15 (3.76) | < .001 | ||
| Head circumference, cmd | 32.31 (2.11) | 33.47 (2.40) | < .001 | ||
| Blood lead level, μg/dL ae | 7.07 (4.14) | 8.04 (4.66) | .06 | ||
| Parental attachmentf | 2.10 (0.68) | 2.27 (0.61) | .01 | ||
| Parental monitoringf | 2.42 (0.65) | 2.49 (0.58) | .32 | ||
| Violence exposureaf | 0.63 (0.77) | 0.58 (0.80) | .47 | ||
| Pubertal developmentf | 1.27 (0.57) | 1.25 (0.57) | .79 | ||
| YSR Externalizing behaviorf | 50.99 (10.05) | 47.79 (9.75) | .002 | ||
| WISC-IV Full Scale IQg | 81.35(11.27) | 83.80 (14.01) | .07 | ||
| Male | 74 (42.05) | 85 (48.02) | .26 | ||
| African-American | 151 (81.62) | 145 (81.01) | .88 | ||
| Receiving Medicaidg | 152 (85.39) | 129 (75.00) | .01 | ||
| Receiving free lunch at schoolg | 148 (83.62) | 143 (84.62) | .80 | ||
| Always in birth parents’ careg | 57 (30.81) | 134 (74.86) | < .001 | ||
| Placement at 15 | < .001 | ||||
| Birth parents’ care | 95 (51.35) | 160 (89.39) | |||
| Relative care | 37 (20.00) | 6 (3.35) | |||
| Non-kinship care | 44 (23.78) | 6 (3.35) | |||
| Others | 9 (4.86) | 7 (3.91) | |||
| Sexual victimization | 36 (21.05) | 34 (19.77) | .77 | ||
| Substance use at age 15 | |||||
| Tobacco | 64 (35.36) | 47 (27.17) | .10 | ||
| Alcohol | 72 (39.56) | 64 (36.57) | .56 | ||
| Marijuana | 64 (35.16) | 43 (24.57) | .03 | ||
| Early (< age 15) sexual intercourse | 69 (38.33) | 49 (28.16) | .04 | ||
BSI=Brief Symptom Inventory; WISC-IV=Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children-Fourth Edition. YSR= Youth Self Report.
a
Data were normalized using a log transformation,
b
p-value based on n (%),
c
No caregivers reported cocaine use in the past 30 days.
d
Adjusted for gestational age.
e
Sub-sample of 145 PCE and 139 NCE.
f
Assessed at age 12.
g
Assessed at age 15.