Table 3.
Unstandardized and Standardized Path Coefficients for the Main Model
| Structural model paths by endogenous variablea | B (SE) | β | Proportion of variance explainedb |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent involvement: R2 = .10 | |||
| Obstacles to involvement → parent involvement | −0.11 (0.02)*** | −.21 | .05 |
| Practical support/services → parent involvement | −0.05 (0.02)* | −.08 | .01 |
| Teacher/staff training → parent involvement | 0.05 (0.02)* | .10 | .01 |
| Parents’ controlling behavior: R2Y1 = .09, R2Y2 = .15 | |||
| Controlling Y1→ controlling Y2 | 0.28 (0.05)*** | .28 | .08 |
| Parent involvement → controlling Y1 | −0.16 (0.15) | −.04 | .00 |
| Parent involvement → controlling Y2 | −0.32 (0.15)* | −.07 | .01 |
| Parent cognitive stimulation: R2Y1 = .16, R2Y2 = .38 | |||
| Cognitive stimulation Y1→ cognitive stimulationY2 | 0.53 (0.05)*** | .51 | .22 |
| Parent involvement → cognitive stimulation Y1 | 0.53 (0.13)*** | .24 | .05 |
| Parent involvement → cognitive stimulation Y2 | 0.24 (0.07)*** | .10 | .03 |
| Controlling Y2 → cognitive stimulation Y2 | −0.08 (0.02)*** | −.15 | .02 |
| Parents’ use of spanking: R2Y1 = .14, R2Y2 = .31 | |||
| Spanking Y1→ spanking Y2 | 0.36 (0.04)*** | .41 | .15 |
| Parent involvement → spanking Y1 | 0.05 (0.07) | .03 | .00 |
| Parent involvement → spanking Y2 | −0.06 (0.04) | −.04 | .00 |
| Controlling Y2 → spanking Y2 | 0.05 (0.01)*** | .16 | .02 |
| Behavior problems: R2 = .43 | |||
| Behavior problems Y1→ behavior problems Y2 | 0.43 (0.06)*** | .47 | .24 |
| Cognitive stimulation Y2 → behavior problems Y2 | 0.00 (0.03) | .01 | .00 |
| Controlling Y2 → behavior problems Y2 | 0.02 (0.02) | .04 | .00 |
| Spanking Y2 → behavior problems Y2 | 0.15 (0.05)** | .10 | .01 |
| Positive learning behaviors (PLBS): R2 = .36 | |||
| PLBS Y1 → PLBS Y2 | 0.36 (0.05)*** | .41 | .18 |
| Cognitive stimulation Y2 → PLBS Y2 | 0.12 (0.19) | .02 | .00 |
| Controlling Y2 → PLBS Y2 | −0.04 (0.09) | −.02 | .00 |
| Spanking Y2 → PLBS Y2 | −0.84 (0.28)** | −.11 | .01 |
| Literacy skills: R2 = .79 | |||
| Literacy Y1 → literacy Y2 | 1.05 (0.10)*** | .83 | .41 |
| Cognitive stimulation Y2 → literacy Y2 | 0.06 (0.03)* | .07 | .01 |
| Controlling Y2 → literacy Y2 | 0.01 (0.01) | .01 | .00 |
| Spanking Y2 → literacy Y2 | −0.07 (0.05) | −.05 | .00 |
| Math skills: R2 = .60 | |||
| Math Y1 → math Y2 | 1.14 (0.16)*** | .72 | .33 |
| Cognitive stimulation Y2 → math Y2 | 1.08 (0.36) ** | .09 | .01 |
| Controlling Y2 → math Y2 | 0.15 (0.19) | .02 | .00 |
| Spanking Y2 → math Y2 | −0.74 (0.57) | −.04 | .00 |
Note. Y1 = Year 1; Y2 = Year 2.
a
Covariances among factors or variables within time and coefficients for control variables are not included in the table but are available upon request.
b
The proportion of variance explained by each predictor was calculated by taking the difference between the R2s in the final model and a model omitting the focal predictor.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.