. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2017 Apr 1.

Published in final edited form as: Ophthalmology. 2016 Jan 27;123(4):681–689. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.11.023

Table 3.

Test of Preschool Early Literacy (TOPEL) scores by refractive error group

TOPEL Score	Emmetropic N=248	Hyperopic (3 to 6D) N=244	-----------Unadjusted-----------		-----------Adjusted^*-----------
TOPEL Score	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)	Difference (95% Confidence Interval)	P	Difference (95% Confidence Interval)	P
Total	89.4 (23.5)	83.5 (22.9)	−5.9 (−10.0, −1.8)	0.004	−4.3 (−7.7, −0.9)	0.01
Print Knowledge	22.9 (10.7)	19.7 (11.3)	−3.1 (−5.1, −1.2)	0.002	−2.4 (−4.1, −0.6)	0.007
Definitional Vocabulary	51.2 (11.2)	48.9 (11.1)	−2.3 (−4.3, −0.3)	0.02	−1.6 (−3.4, 0.3)	0.07
Phonological Awareness	15.4 (5.4)	14.9 (4.8)	−0.5 (−1.4, 0.4)	0.28	−0.3 (−1.1, 0.4)	0.39

SD = standard deviation

Adjusted for age at testing in months, race and ethnicity, and education level of parent or caregiver.