. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2017 Apr 1.

Published in final edited form as: Ophthalmology. 2016 Jan 27;123(4):681–689. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.11.023

Table 4.

Comparison of mean adjusted Test of Preschool Early Literacy (TOPEL) scores by refractive error (most hyperopic meridian)

Groups	Compared to	Adjusted^# Mean Difference (95% Confidence Interval)
Groups	Compared to	Total	p^*	Print Knowledge	p^*	Definitional Vocabulary	p^*	Phonological Awareness	p^*
Emmetropic (N=248)	Hyperopic, <4D (N=159)	−2.9 (−6.8, 0.09)	0.13	−1.5 (−3.4, 0.5)	0.14	−1.5 (−3.5, 0.5)	0.28	−0.0 (−0.9, 0.9)	0.99
Emmetropic (N=248)	Hyperopic, ≥4D (N=85)	−6.8 (−11.6, −2.1)	0.01	−4.0 (−6.4, −1.6)	0.003	−1.9 (−4.3, 0.5)	0.28	−1.0 (−2.0, 0.1)	0.19
Hyperopic, <4D (N=159)	Hyperopic, ≥4D (N=85)	−3.9 (−8.9, 1.2)	0.13	−2.5 (−5.1, 0.1)	0.11	−0.4 (−3.0, 2.2)	0.76	−1.0 (−2.1, 0.2)	0.19

D = diopters, Hyperopic <4D = Hyperopic 3 to <4D, Hyperopic ≥ 4D = Hyperopic 4 to 6D

Adjusted for age at testing in months, race and ethnicity, and education level of parent or caregiver.

p-values adjusted by the Hochberg procedure.