Figure 3. Effects of TEX on immune cells or immune cell progenitors.

In the TME, TEX (in blue), produced and released by tumor cells, induce: (a) inhibition of functions necessary for antitumor responses; (b) apoptosis of activated Teffs; (c) expansion and upregulation of suppressive activity in Tregs, MDSCs, and regulatory B cells (Bregs); (d)interference with cellular differentiation; (e) polarization to tumor-promoting phenotypes; and (d) mobilization of cells to tumor. TEX carrying TAAs can interfere with immunotherapies. TEX also mediate autocrine effects and influence the functions of normal cells present in the TME.