Table 1.
Plants used to manage HIV/AIDS related diseases in Livingstone, Southern Province, Zambia.
| Family | Botanical name | Vernacular name | Growth form | Frequency index, voucher number | Diseases treated | Plant parts used, preparation, and mode of administration |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acanthaceae | Barleria kirkii T. Anderson | Chavani | Herb | 13.3, L144 | HIV/AIDS | Leaf decoction is drank |
| Amaranthaceae | Achyranthes aspera L. | Tantajulo | Herb | 20.0, L186 | Cancer, pneumonia, cough, diarrhoea, fungal infections of the skin, genital warts | Root infusion or whole plant decoction is drank; paste of plant is applied to skin |
| Anacardiaceae | Lannea stuhlmannii (Engl.) Eyles | Mungangacha, Mucheche | Tree | 83.3, L245 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis, herpes zoster, herpes simplex, skin infections, HIV/AIDS |
Crushed leaves or roots are boiled in water, decoction is drank; stem bark decoction is used to wash affected skin |
| Anacardiaceae | Lannea discolor (Sond.) Engl. | Mungongwa | Tree | 50.0, L235 | Diarrhoea, gonorrhoea | Fruit pulp eaten to relieve diarrhoea; root infusion drank to relieve gonorrhoea |
| Annonaceae | Friesodielsia obovata (Benth.) Verdc. | Muchinga | Shrub | 20.0, L216 | Skin rashes | Pounded leaves rubbed into skin |
| Annonaceae | Artabotrys brachypetalus Benth. | Mulandabala | Climber | 13.3, L230 | Skin infections | Crushed leaves rubbed into skin |
| Apiaceae | Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. | Mupelewa | Tree | 60.0, L113 | Headache | Root decoction is drank |
| Arecaceae | Hyphaene petersiana Klotzsch ex Mart. | Kakunka, Mapokwe | Tree | 20.0, L217 | Malaria, cough, tuberculosis, skin rashes, sores related to STIs | Palm fruit is eaten raw or boiled to treat malaria and cough; seeds are used to treat TB; sap is applied to heal skin rashes and STIs |
| Asclepiadaceae | Fockea angustifolia K. Schum. | Mutindika, Nanyama | Herb | 83.3, L210 | Cough | Tuber is eaten raw |
| Asparagaceae | Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop | Mutandamyoba | Climber | 50.0, L207 | Eczema | Whole plant is crushed and rubbed into affected skin |
| Asparagaceae | Sansevieria deserti N. E. Br. | Musombo, Mukonje | Herb | 13.3, L360 | Oral infections | Leaves are chewed and then spitted |
| Asparagaceae | Asparagus racemosus Willd. | Mutandamyoba, Ilutwa | Climber | 20.0, L433 | Pneumonia, cough, diarrhoea, syphilis | Whole plant is boiled; decoction is drank |
| Asteraceae | Vernonia amygdalina Delile | Musoboyo | Shrub | 83.3, L481 | Coughs, tuberculosis, malaria | Leaves are boiled; decoction is drank |
| Bignoniaceae | Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. | Muzungula | Tree | 83.3, L485 | Syphilis, herpes simplex, diarrhoea, boils, colds, flu | Stem bark and leaves are boiled |
| Burseraceae | Commiphora mollis Engl. | Muntyokela | Tree | 50.0, L312 | Treats swollen pancreas in patients on antiretroviral therapy | Stem bark is crushed and boiled; decoction is drank |
| Capparaceae | Boscia salicifolia Oliv. | Mulaba, Kabombwe | Tree | 70.0, L406 | Syphilis, HIV/AIDS | Roots are ground and left in water; infusion is drank |
| Capparaceae | Capparis tomentosa Lam. | Chonswe | Shrub | 20.0, L329 | Syphilis rashes; HIV/AIDS; cryptococcal meningitis, oral candidiasis, herpes zoster, herpes simplex, chronic diarrhoea | Roots are crushed and boiled and decoction is drank; crushed leaves are applied to sores or soaked in water used to wash the mouth |
| Capparaceae | Cleome hirta Oliv. | Mulangazuba, Kalungukachisiungwa | Herb | 13.3, L303 | Pneumonia, tuberculosis, fungal infection of the skin, malaria | Leaf infusion is drunk |
| Celastraceae | Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell | Mukuba | Shrub | 50.0, LV235 | Tuberculosis | Leaves are crushed and soaked in water; infusion is drank |
| Celastraceae | Hippocratea africana Loes. ex Engl. | Mulele | Climber | 60.0, LV280 | Malaria | Root decoction is drunk |
| Chrysobalanaceae | Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth. | Mubulabula, Mula | Tree | 13.3, LV245 | Toothache, diarrhoea | Fruit eaten raw |
| Clusiaceae | Garcinia livingstonei T. Anderson | Mutungwa, Mukwanaga | Tree | 83.3, LV226 | Cryptococcal meningitis, herpes zoster, herpes simplex, skin rashes Tuberculosis chronic diarrhoea | Fruit eaten raw or in porridge |
| Combretaceae | Combretum collinum Fresen. | Mukunza, Mulamana | Tree | 43.3, LV187 | Chronic diarrhoea, tuberculosis, cough | Roots are crushed and soaked in water overnight; filtrate is drank |
| Combretaceae | Combretum imberbe Wawra | Mubimba, Muzwili | Tree | 83.3, LV238 | General STIs, tuberculosis | Stem bark is crushed and soaked in water overnight; filtrate is drank |
| Combretaceae | Combretum apiculatum Sond. | Mukalanga, Kalanga, Nkalanga | Tree | 50.0, LV220 | General STI syndromes; tuberculosis | Stem bark is crushed and soaked in water overnight; filtrate is drank |
| Combretaceae | Combretum elaeagnoides Klotzsch | Mukalanga, Mukupo | Tree | 30.0, L576 | Malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhoea | Fresh leaves are crushed and soaked in water overnight; filtrate is drank |
| Combretaceae | Combretum hereroense Schinz | Namazubo | Tree | 53.3, L437 | Gonorrhoea | Roots are crushed and soaked in water overnight; filtrate is drank |
| Combretaceae | Terminalia prunioides M. A. Lawson | Mutala, Mukonono, Mulumbu | Tree | 83.3, L247 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis, HIV/AIDS | Outer parts of roots are dried, crushed, and mixed with water overnight; infusion is drank |
| Combretaceae | Combretum mossambicense Engl. | Numinambelele, Silutombolwa, Mutombololo | Climber | 36.7, LV475 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis | Fresh leaves are crushed and soaked in water overnight; filtrate is taken orally |
| Combretaceae | Combretum paniculatum Vent. | Mutombolo | Shrub | 50.0, L322 | Malaria, diarrhoea | Leaves are pounded and soaked in water; infusion is drank |
| Connaraceae | Byrsocarpus orientalis Baill. | Kazingini | Shrub | 13.3, L521 | Skin abscesses and boils | Young stems are cut and boiled, and decoction is applied to skin |
| Dioscoreaceae | Dioscorea cochleari-apiculata De Wild. | Mpama | Climber | 13.3, L511 | Syphilitic sores, chancroid | Root decoction drank |
| Ebenaceae | Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. | Mchenja | Tree | 83.3, L109 | Malaria | Crushed roots are boiled; filtrate is drank |
| Ebenaceae | Diospyros quiloensis (Hiern) F. White | Musiaabwele | Tree | 50.0, LV339 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis, malaria | Crushed stem bark is boiled; filtrate is drank |
| Ebenaceae | Euclea divinorum Hiern | Munyansyabweli | Tree | 20.0, LV140 | Syphilis, gonorrhoea, genital herpes, oral candidiasis, abscesses, diarrhoea | Roots are ground and boiled in water and decoction is taken orally |
| Erythroxylaceae | Erythroxylum zambesiacum N. Robson | Mubalubalu | Tree | 16.7, LV277 | Malaria, headache | Roots are cut into small pieces and boiled, and decoction is administered orally |
| Euphorbiaceae | Croton gratissimus Burch. | Mungai, Kanunkila Mpati | Tree | 66.7, LV399 | Syphilis | Stem bark is boiled; decoction is drank and used to wash sores |
| Euphorbiaceae | Croton megalobotrys Müll. Arg. | Mutua, Mutuatua | Tree | 60.0, S149 | Gonorrhoea | Leaves are boiled and decoction is drank |
| Euphorbiaceae | Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia Pax | Mukunyu | Tree | 23.3, S108 | Diarrhoea, pneumonia | Stem bark decoction is drank |
| Euphorbiaceae | Bridelia cathartica G. Bertol. | Munyanyamenda | Shrub | 13.3, S154 | Oral infections, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea, malaria | Leaves and fruits are chewed raw to act as mouthwash; stem bark infusion is drank |
| Euphorbiaceae | Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) G. L. Webster | Mulyankanga | Shrub | 16.7, S119 | Skin rashes and sores; headache | Stem bark |
| Euphorbiaceae | Phyllanthus reticulatus Lodd. | Mwichechele | Shrub | 26.7, S260 | Herpes simplex | Crushed leaves are rubbed to affected areas of skin |
| Fabaceae | Acacia albida Delile | Musangu, Muunga | Tree | 50.0, S100 | Syphilis sores, herpes zoster | Crushed leaves and stem bark are applied to heal sores |
| Fabaceae | Acacia nigrescens Oliv. | Mwabaa, Mukwena | Tree | 60.0, S78 | Herpes zoster | Leaves and stem bark are boiled, decoction used to |
| Fabaceae | Acacia polyacantha Willd. | Mumbu, Mukotokoto, Luntwele | Tree | 50.0, S63 | Gonorrhoea, herpes zoster | Leaves and stem bark are crushed and boiled; decoction is drank or used to wash affected skin |
| Fabaceae | Afzelia quanzensis Welw. | Mupapa, Mukamba | Tree | 76.7, S27 | General STIs | Leaves are pounded and soaked in water overnight and then drank |
| Fabaceae | Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin | Kankumbwila,Mukangola | Tree | 60.0, S44 | Gonorrhoea, diarrhoea | Stem bark infusion is drank |
| Fabaceae | Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe | Mukololo | Tree | 13.3, S31 | Gonorrhoea, cough | Stem bark and leaves are mixed, crushed, soaked in water, and filtered and infusion is drank |
| Fabaceae | Peltophorum africanum Sond. | Muzenzenze | Tree | 83.3, K203 | General STIs, oral infections | Roots are soaked in water and infusion is drank to treat STIs; leaves are crushed and soaked in water; infusion is used to wash mouth |
| Fabaceae | Pterocarpus antunesii Harms | Mukambo | Tree | 26.7, K166 | Diarrhoea | Stem bark infusion is drank |
| Fabaceae | Acacia goetzei Harms | Mwaba | Tree | 46.7, K88 | Cough, pneumonia | Root decoction is drank |
| Fabaceae | Acacia nilotica Delile | Mukoka | Tree | 66.7, K56 | Tuberculosis, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea, dental caries | Twigs used as chewing sticks to treat dental caries |
| Fabaceae | Cassia abbreviata Oliv. | Mululwe | Tree | 83.3, K39 | Gonorrhoea, diarrhoea | Root infusion is drank |
| Fabaceae | Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. | Musonkomo | Shrub | 13.3, K17 | Diarrhoea | Root decoction is drank |
| Fabaceae | Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. | Musekese | Tree | 60.0, K12 | Coughs, skin rashes, gonorrhoea, syphilis | Stem bark and roots are boiled; decoction is drank to heal coughs and STIs; leaf infusion is used to wash infected skin |
| Fabaceae | Acacia ataxacantha DC. | Lubamfwa | Shrub | 50.0, K60 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis | Roots are boiled and decoction is drank |
| Fabaceae | Acacia schweinfurthii Brenan & Exell | Lubua, Mokoka | Shrub | 33.3, L34 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis | Roots, stem bark, and leaves are mixed, pounded, and soaked in water and infusion is drank |
| Fabaceae | Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. | Katenge, Mugee | Shrub | 66.7, L79 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis; oral candidiasis, and skin rashes | Stem bark is boiled and decoction is drank, used to wash oral cavity, or used to disinfect skin by washing |
| Fabaceae | Mimosa pigra L. | Muchabachaba, Sichatubabi | Shrubs | 83.3, L56 | Diarrhoea, genital ulcers, gonorrhoea | Leaves and small and young stems are dried, pounded into powder, mixed with water, and filtered and extract is drank or used to wash genital ulcers |
| Fabaceae | Sesbania sesban Britton | Mbelembele | Shrub | 13.3, L77 | Malaria | Roots are boiled and decoction is administered orally |
| Fabaceae | Indigofera colutea (Burm. f.) Merr. | Kapalupalu | Herb | 13.3, L59 | Diarrhoea | Whole plant is pounded, soaked in water overnight, and filtered, and infusion is drank to alleviate diarrhoea |
| Fabaceae | Abrus precatorius L. | Musolosolo | Climber | 60.0, KC280 | Gonorrhoea, syphilitic ulcers, genital herpes; oral candidiasis, ulcer boils | Whole plant is crushed, boiled in water, and filtered; decoction is drank; crushed leaves soaked in water and used to wash mouth and syphilitic ulcers |
| Fabaceae | Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. | Muyuyu | Climber | 20.0, KC245 | Weight loss, lack of libido in men | Pods and beans are boiled and consumed for body building and to act as an aphrodisiac |
| Flacourtiaceae | Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. | Mutumbula | Shrub | 13.3, KC350 | Diarrhoea | Leaves chewed raw |
| Flacourtiaceae | Oncoba spinosa Forssk. | Mukumbuzu | Shrub | 16.7, KC2 | Dysentery | Roots and fruits are boiled and decoction is drunk |
| Kirkiaceae | Kirkia acuminata Oliv. | Musanta, Muzumina | Tree | 13.3, KC18 | Diarrhoea | Stem bark infusion is drank |
| Lamiaceae | Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr. | Mfudu, Muyankonga | Tree | 30.0, KC36 | Coughs | Fruit eaten raw or leaves burnt and smoke inhaled as cough medicine |
| Lamiaceae | Hoslundia opposita Vahl | Musombwani | Shrub | 60.0, KC48 | Coughs, flu, fever, loss of libido in men; skin wounds | Roots are boiled and decoction is drunk; sugary fruits are eaten raw to boost libido; crushed leaves are rubbed into skin to heal wounds |
| Lamiaceae | Premna senensis Klotzsch | Mumpika | Shrub | 13.3, KC360 | Syphilitic sores, skin ulcers | Leaf infusions applied to sores |
| Lamiaceae | Vitex petersiana Klotzsch | Mufulibulimbo, Mukoma | Shrub | 23.3, KC312 | Gonorrhoea | Leaf decoction is drank to treat gonorrhoea; |
| Lamiaceae | Clerodendrum capitatum (Willd.) Schumach. | Shamanya | Herb | 60.0, L402 | Gonorrhoea, erectile dysfunction, pneumonia, diarrhoea | Leaf and root decoctions drunk |
| Loganiaceae | Strychnos potatorum L. f. | Musisilombe | Tree | 40.0, KC464 | Syphilis | Infusions of leaves are drank |
| Loganiaceae | Strychnos innocua Delile | Mutimi, Muhuluhulu, Mwabo | Tree | 20.0, KC216 | Gonorrhoea, sore throat | Eat fruit pulp |
| Malvaceae | Azanza garckeana (F. Hoffm.) Exell & Hillc. | Makole, Munego | Tree | 60.0, KC143 | Malaria | Eat raw fruit, cook, and eat as relish |
| Malvaceae | Sida alba L. | Mulyangombe, Babani | Shrub | 20.0, KC525 | Gonorrhoea | Roots and leaves are boiled; decoction is drank |
| Malvaceae | Hibiscus vitifolius L. | Mubaluba | Herb | Chronic diarrhoea | Leaves are boiled and filtered through wire sieve and decoction is drank | |
| Meliaceae | Khaya nyasica Stapf ex Baker f. | Mululu | Tree | 43.3, KC113 | Fever | Stem bark infusion is drank |
| Meliaceae | Trichilia emetica Vahl | Musikili | Tree | 56.7, KC217 | Fever, pneumonia; skin rashes | Root decoction is drunk; leaves rubbed onto skin |
| Menispermaceae | Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich. | Itende | Climber | 73.3, KC210 | Syphilis, chancroid | Whole plant is cut into small pieces and boiled and decoction is drank after filtering |
| Moraceae | Ficus capensis Hort. Berol. ex Kunth & C. D. Bouché | Mukuyu | Tree | 60.0, KC207 | Diarrhoea, tuberculosis, skin sores, genital warts | Fresh leaves are boiled in water and decoction is drank or used to wash warts and skin sores |
| Moraceae | Ficus sycomorus L. | Mukuyu | Tree | 76.7, KC360 | Cough, tuberculosis, periodontitis, and oral candidiasis | Fresh leaves are boiled in water and decoction is drank or used to wash the mouth |
| Myrtaceae | Syzygium cordatum Hochst. | Katope | Tree | 83.3, KC433 | Diarrhoea | Stem bark decoction is drunk |
| Myrtaceae | Syzygium guineense DC. | Mutoya, Katope | Tree | 83.3, KC481 | Abscesses, skin rashes, diarrhoea | Fruits eaten raw; stem decoction applied to affected skin |
| Olacaceae | Ximenia americana L. | Munchovwa, Muchonfwa | Tree | 83.3, KC318 | Candidiasis, malaria, throat infection, tonsillitis, gonorrhoea, diarrhoea, skin rashes | Roots, leaves, and fruits are crushed while fresh and mixed with water overnight and taken orally |
| Pedaliaceae | Sesamum angolense Welw. | Bwengo | Herb | 13.3, KC267 | Skin rashes | Leaves are crushed and used as soap to bath skin |
| Plumbaginaceae | Plumbago zeylanica L. | Sikalutenta | Shrub | 83.3, KC318 | Generally treats all STI symptoms | Root infusion is drank |
| Ranunculaceae | Clematis brachiata Ker Gawl. | Kalatongo | Climber | 20.0, KC354 | Coughs, headache, fever | Leaves are boiled and drunk as a tea; sometimes honey is added as a sweetener |
| Rhamnaceae | Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. | Mwiiyi, Mwinji | Tree | 60.0, KC235 | Cough | Use fruit in porridge |
| Rhamnaceae | Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. | Masawu, Masawu | Tree | 40.0, KC226 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis | Fruit eaten raw, apply to wound, and put into porridge |
| Rhamnaceae | Ziziphus mucronata Willd. | Muchechete, Mwichechete | Tree | 83.3, KC144 | Gonorrhoea, syphilis, boils, pneumonia, cough | Root or leaf infusion is drank |
| Sapotaceae | Mimusops zeyheri Sond. | Mukalanjoni | Tree | 40.0, KC120 | Oral candidiasis | Fruit is eaten or root infusion is used as a mouthwash |
| Tiliaceae | Grewia flavescens Juss. | Namulomo, Mukunyukunyu | Shrub | 40.0, KC199 | Diarrhoea | Eat fruit pulp to relieve diarrhoea |
| Tiliaceae | Corchorus tridens L. | Delele | Herb | 13.3, KC101 | Syphilitic ulcers, chancroid | Root infusion drank or applied to ulcers |
| Vitaceae | Cissus quadrangularis L. | Mulungalunga, Chamulungelunge | Climber | 40.0, KC78 | Malaria, gonorrhoea | Sap is drank; whole plant infusion is drank |