Table 1.
Metabolic factor | Acute training | Chronic training | Exercise characteristics (intensity, modality) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Proximal insulin signaling (IRS-1, PI3-K, PDK, αPKC) | ↑∗ | ↑↑ | Moderate-to-intensive exercise for untrained and high-intensity exercise for trained individuals, independent of modality | [12–22] |
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AMPK | ↑↑ | ↑↑ | Dose-response pattern, independent of modality | [8, 23–31] |
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Ca2+-calmodulin axis | ↑↑ | ↑↑ | Dose-response pattern, independent of modality | [8, 27, 31–35] |
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mTOR/S6K | ↑↑ | ↑↑ | Dose-response pattern, independent of modality | [29, 36–46] |
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Downstream targets: AS160, TBC1D1, Rac1 | ↑ | ↑ | Dose-response pattern for AS160 and Rac1, independent of modality | [16, 47–60] |
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IKK/NF-κB pathway | ↑↕$ | ↓↓ | Dose-response pattern, independent of modality | [2, 61–77] |
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Inflammasome pathway | — | ↓↓ | Dose-response pattern, independent of modality | [2, 78–80] |
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JNK/MAPK pathway | ↑↑ | ↓↓ | Dose-response pattern, independent of modality | [67–69, 81–85] |
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Adiponectin | ↑ | ↑ | Intense exercise, independent of modality | [3, 5, 53, 86–94] |
↑↑/↓↓, consistent findings in animal models and humans; ↑/↓, preliminary evidence from animal models and/or humans; —, no impact; ∗animal studies showed no effects; $increase in skeletal muscle and increase/decrease in adipose tissue; αPKC, atypical PKC; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; AS160, Akt substrate of 160 kDa; Ca, calcium; CaMKII, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase 2; IRS-1, insulin receptor substrate 1; IKK/NF-κB, IκB kinase/nuclear factor kappa B; JNK, C-Jun N-terminal kinase; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinases; mTOR/S6K, mammalian target of rapamycin/ribosomal S6 kinase; PDK, phosphoinositide-dependent kinase; PI3-K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; Rac1, ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1; TBC1D1, TBC1 domain family member 1.