Table 1.

Biological functions attributed to tumor-derived exosomes (TEX)

	References
Tumor progression
Autocrine effects on tumor cells: Proliferation, survival, migration	16, 32, 44
Stimulation of angiogenesis in the TME	32, 44, 129
Extracellular matrix remodeling	61, 62
Education and re-programming of the bone marrow to a pro-metastatic niche	54,55
Metastasis	54,55
Suppression of host anti-tumor immunity	57, 58, 59, 60
Horizontal transfer of oncogenic mutations from tumor to normal cells	39, 40, 54
Intercellular communication and target cell reprogramming (TEX as “signalosomes”)
Transfer of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids (mRNA, miRNA, DNA) from tumor to normal cells: alterations in phenotype and functions	39, 40–48
Thrombogenesis: promotion of coagulation	130
Angiogenesis: vessel formation at sites distant from tumor	131, 132, 133
Hematopoietic cell differentiation	63, 64, 67
Immune regulation
Immunosuppression of tumor-specific responses	57–60
Immune stimulation of tumor-specific responses	36, 37, 38
Drug resistance
Removal of toxic drugs from the cytosol	65
Exchange of drug transporters	66