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. 2016 Mar 29;7:10996. doi: 10.1038/ncomms10996

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(a) Learning task. Visual stimuli (rocks) were probabilistically associated with outcomes (snake or no snake). Subjects made a prediction of the outcome on each trial. The appearance of a snake was accompanied by the delivery of a painful electric shock. (b) Example trial. Here the participant incorrectly predicts no snake. Timing was jittered; see Methods. (c) The probabilities governing stimulus–outcome relationships shifted unpredictably over time, producing fluctuations in uncertainty. (d) Subjective stress ratings were collected every four to six trials. Measures of skin conductance (n=45) and pupil dilatation (n=22) were collected in some subjects.