Table 1.

Description of study measures

Dependent variables Mood disorders were defined based on the DSM-IV and assessed by using a state-of-the-art diagnostic interview [27–29]; minor deviations from the DSM-IV exclusion criteria are noted below. The outcome variables were measured at Waves 1 and 2 as dummy-coded variables, with individuals not having (0) or having (1) a condition at the given time.
Major depression disorder (MDD)	MDD during the last 12 months was defined as depressed mood or loss of pleasure and interest for at least most of the day for at least a 2-week period, with endorsement of 4 out of 7 additional symptoms, excluding illness- induced and substance-induced cases, cases due to bereavement, diagnoses of manic or hypomanic disorder, and self-report of lifetime occurrence of schizophrenia/psychotic illness (a proxy for schizoaffective disorder).
Dysthymia	Dysthymia was defined as 2 years of depressed mood for more days than not, with no longer than 2 months without depressive symptoms and excluding manic or hypomanic episodes, self-reported schizophrenia/psychotic illness (lifetime occurrences), and MDD in the last 12 months.
Independent variables (substantive factors)a
Immigrant background
Nativity	US-born (primary reference group) versus born outside of 50 US states (“foreign-born,” except Puerto Rico-natives)
Racial-ethnic origin	Self-report of the respondents’ race and ethnicity using country of origin or racial-ethnic descent (59 response categories). Given that some groups had small cell sizes, we used the following 6 racial-ethnic origin categories: African, European, Asian/Pacific Islander, Mexican, Puerto Rican, and other Hispanic/Latino.
Acculturationb
English language preference	Seven questions on language preference asked respondents about which language: they generally read and speak; they spoke as a child; they usually speak at home; they usually think in; they usually speak with friends; of the TV and radio programs they usually listen to; and, of the movies and TV and radio programs they prefer to watch and listen to. Response categories for the 7 questions used a 5-point scale and were: only non-English language (e.g., Spanish, Chinese, or another non-English language); more non-English language than English; both equally; more English than non- English language; and, only English. Factor analysis was used to generate a single factor on language preference (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.970). Higher values indicated greater acculturation (e.g., more use of English).
Years in US	Difference between year of entry and year of birth for foreign-born and individual’s age value for US-born respondents
Racial-ethnic social preference	Respondents were asked how often, in the past year, they have felt that they were not able to control the important things in their life; felt confident about their ability to handle personal problems; felt things were going their way; and, felt difficulties piling up so high that they could not overcome them. The response categories for each question were: never, sometimes, fairly often, and very often. The perceived stress scale was intended to assess the cognitively mediated emotional response to objective stressful events. Factor analysis was used to construct two perceived stress measures: stress related to personal life (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.70) and stress related to a lack of control in life (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.64).
Racial-ethnic orientation	Respondents were asked how strongly they agreed or disagreed that: they have a strong sense of self as a member of their racial-ethnic group; they identify with other people from their racial-ethnic group; racial-ethnic heritage is important in their life; and, they are proud of their racial-ethnic heritage. The scale’s Cronbach’s alpha was 0.829. Higher values on the measure indicated less identification with one’s own racial-ethnic group, reflecting greater acculturation and assimilation.
Stressb
Stressful life events	Stressful life events was the total number of the following 12 events that respondents reported experiencing in the 12 months prior to the interview: any family member or close friend died; any family or close friend had serious illness or injury; moved/anyone new came to live with you; fired or laid off from a job; unemployed and looking for a job for more than a month; trouble with their boss or a coworker; changed job, job responsibilities, or work hours; marital separation or divorce or breakup of a steady relationship; had problems with neighbor, friend, or relative; financial crisis, declaration of bankruptcy, or being unable to pay their bills; respondent or family member had serious trouble with the police or law; and, respondent or family member being crime victim.
Perceived stress	Respondents were asked how often, in the past year, they have felt that they were not able to control the important things in their life; felt confident about their ability to handle personal problems; felt things were going their way; and, felt difficulties piling up so high that they could not overcome them. The response categories for each question were: never, sometimes, fairly often, and very often. The perceived stress scale was intended to assess the cognitively mediated emotional response to objective stressful events. Factor analysis was used to construct two perceived stress measures: stress related to personal life (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.70) and stress related to a lack of control in life (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.64).
Perceived racial-ethnic discrimination	Respondents were asked about how often they experienced discrimination related to their race or ethnicity in a variety of situations during the last 12 months. These include experiencing discrimination in their ability to obtain health care or health insurance; in how they are treated when they got health care; in public, (on the street, in stores, or in restaurants); in any other situation (jobs, school or training program, in courts or with police, or obtaining housing); being called a racist name because of their race- ethnicity; and, being made fun of, picked on, pushed, shoved, hit or threatened with harm because of their race-ethnicity. All respondents were asked these questions regardless of race or ethnicity, though the question phrasing was more specific to type of race or ethnicity for respondents who were Hispanic or of Asian/Pacific Islander descent. Factor analysis was used to generate two factors indicating perceived discrimination related to health care services (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75) and perceived discrimination in other aspects of life (e.g., in jobs, schooling, housing, in businesses, or by police; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75).
Social integrationb
Social Network Index	Social Network Index indicated the total number of different types of people respondents see or talk to on the phone or via internet at least once every two weeks. The responses were used to create continuous (summed) indicators for the number of close ties (e.g., grown children, own parents, or close friends) and the number of instrumental ties (e.g., students, teachers, or co-workers, or people in organizations at which they volunteer) respondents have in their social network. Higher values indicated a larger network.
Level of social support	Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL12) had 6 questions on how true it is respondents could find someone to help them or join them in a variety of situations, including: help with daily chores if sick, seek advice about handling problems with family, go to a movie, deal with personal problems, have lunch, and get ride if stranded 10 miles from home. Factor analysis was used to create a scale of level of social support (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.79). Higher values indicate higher levels of social support.

^aAdditional variables included sociodemographic and health-related correlates: age, gender, marital status, number of children in the household, education, employment status, US region, community type, household income, health insurance, tobacco use, and religiosity

^bData collected for all respondents regardless of nativity; assessed at Wave 2 only