Table 2.
Signals that affect pancreatic development and growth.
| Signal mediator | Location and note | References |
|---|---|---|
| Homeobox HB9 (Hlxb9) | Dorsal region of pancreas; endocrine and exocrine cells; involved in β cell differentiation | Li et al., 1999. |
| Pancreas transcription factor 1 complex (Ptf1a) | Ventral region and pancreas; endocrine and exocrine cell differentiation | Schaffer et al., 2010 |
| bHLH transcription factor 1 (Hes1) | Transcriptional repressor; keeps progenitor cells undifferentiated | Jensen et al., 2000 |
| bHLH transcription factor Mist1 | Ventral region and pancreas; endocrine and exocrine cell phenotyping | Pin et al., 2001 |
| Epidermal growth factor (EGF) Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) Transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-alpha) and insulin | Stimulates progenitor cell proliferation via receptor tyrosine kinases | Yesil and Lammert, 2008 |
| Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1 and 2) | Stimulates progenitor cells | Bouwens and Rooman, 2005 |
| Homeoprotein Isl-1 (Islet-1) | Stimulates the development of the dorsal pancreatic bud; β cell differentiation and proliferation | Du et al., 2009 |
| Neurogenin 3 (Ngn-3) | bHLH family; stimulates endocrine cell differentiation | Gradwoh et al., 2000; Song et al., 2004; Gunasekaran et al., 2012 |
| Homeobox Protein Nkx-6.1 (Nkx6.1) and Homeobox Protein Nkx-2.2 (Nkx2.2) | β cell differentiation | Oster et al., 1998 |
| Paired box gene 4 (Pax-4) | Transcriptional repressor for alpha cells and enhancer for β cells in early development | Smith et al., 1999 |
| Paired box gene 6 (Pax-6) | β cell differentiation and function | Hart et al., 2013 |
| Pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 (Pdx-1)/ insulin promoter factor-1 | β cell differentiation and function | Hui and Perfetti, 2002 |
| Growth hormone (GH) | β cell proliferation | Nielsen et al., 1989 |
| Prolactin (PRL) | β cell differentiation and morphogenesis | Auffret et al., 2013 |
| Placental lactogen (PL) | β cell proliferation and phenotype | Fleenor et al., 2000 |
| Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) | β cell differentiation and proliferation | Vasavada et al., 1996 |
| Gastrin | Neogenesis and transdifferentiation | Rooman et al., 2002 |
| Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) | Reduce β cell death (anti-apoptotic) and modulate function | McIntosh et al., 2009 |
| Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) | β cell proliferation | Buteau et al., 2003 |
| Cyclin D1 and D2 | β cell proliferation | Kushner et al., 2005 |
| Cdk4 | β cell proliferation | Martín et al., 2003 |