Table 1.
Demographic characteristics of the study subjects and households
| Characteristic | Pakistan | Belgaum, India | Nagpur, India | Kenya | Zambia | Guatemala | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal age | 16,235 | 19,728 | 8,443 | 9,973 | 3,876 | 7,554 | 65,809 |
| <20 | 626 (3.9) | 1,835 (9.3) | 168 (2.0) | 2,183 (21.9) | 984 (25.4) | 1,276 (16.9) | 7,072 (10.7) |
| ≥20 | 15,609 (96.1) | 17,893 (90.7) | 8,275 (98.0) | 7,790 (78.1) | 2,892 (74.6) | 6,278 (83.1) | 58,737 (89.3) |
| Maternal education | 16,239 | 19,611 | 8,439 | 9,974 | 3,847 | 7,555 | 65,665 |
| No formal schooling | 13,595 (83.7) | 4,464 (22.8) | 216 (2.6) | 295 (3.0) | 422 (11.0) | 1,610 (21.3) | 20,602 (31.4) |
| Primary | 1,163 (7.2) | 5,998 (30.6) | 1,414 (16.8) | 7,100 (71.2) | 2,084 (54.2) | 4,769 (63.1) | 22,528 (34.3) |
| Secondary | 900 (5.5) | 7,278 (37.1) | 5,068 (60.1) | 2,216 (22.2) | 1,275 (33.1) | 1,126 (14.9) | 17,863 (27.2) |
| University+ | 581 (3.6) | 1,871 (9.5) | 1,741 (20.6) | 363 (3.6) | 66 (1.7) | 50 (0.7) | 4,672 (7.1) |
| Parity | 16,238 | 19,384 | 8,446 | 9,976 | 3,876 | 7,554 | 65,474 |
| 0 | 3,412 (21.0) | 8,321 (42.9) | 4,119 (48.8) | 2,498 (25.0) | 1,036 (26.7) | 2,056 (27.2) | 21,442 (32.7) |
| 1-2 | 5,325 (32.8) | 9,746 (50.3) | 4,110 (48.7) | 4,000 (40.1) | 1,455 (37.5) | 2,664 (35.3) | 27,300 (41.7) |
| ≥3 | 7,501 (46.2) | 1,317 (6.8) | 217 (2.6) | 3,478 (34.9) | 1,385 (35.7) | 2,834 (37.5) | 16,732 (25.6) |
| Antenatal care | 16,121 | 19,696 | 8,426 | 9,981 | 3,874 | 7,529 | 65,627 |
| Any | 14,385 (89.2) | 19,689 (100.0) | 8,425 (100.0) | 9,794 (98.1) | 3,856 (99.5) | 7,349 (97.6) | 63,498 (96.8) |
| None | 1,736 (10.8) | 7 (0.0) | 1 (0.0) | 187 (1.9) | 18 (0.5) | 180 (2.4) | 2,129 (3.2) |
| Number of antenatal visits | 13,557 | 16,004 | 8,420 | 9,794 | 787 | 7,349 | 55,911 |
| 1 | 2,889 (21.3) | 954 (6.0) | 108 (1.3) | 468 (4.8) | 124 (15.8) | 365 (5.0) | 4,908 (8.8) |
| 2 | 4,617 (34.1) | 1,268 (7.9) | 84 (1.0) | 1,674 (17.1) | 148 (18.8) | 735 (10.0) | 8,526 (15.2) |
| 3 | 3,359 (24.8) | 4,436 (27.7) | 502 (6.0) | 3,649 (37.3) | 269 (34.2) | 1,386 (18.9) | 13,601 (24.3) |
| ≥4 | 2,692 (19.9) | 9,346 (58.4) | 7,726 (91.8) | 4,003 (40.9) | 246 (31.3) | 4,863 (66.2) | 28,876 (51.6) |
| Delivery attendant | 16,266 | 19,755 | 8,444 | 9,991 | 3,881 | 7,555 | 65,892 |
| Physician | 4,066 (25.0) | 11,761 (59.5) | 4,963 (58.8) | 200 (2.0) | 83 (2.1) | 2,785 (36.9) | 23,858 (36.2) |
| Nurse/Midwife | 4,312 (26.5) | 7,055 (35.7) | 3,249 (38.5) | 3,944 (39.5) | 2,067 (53.3) | 197 (2.6) | 20,824 (31.6) |
| No skilled birth attendant | 7,888 (48.5) | 939 (4.8) | 232 (2.7) | 5,847 (58.5) | 1,731 (44.6) | 4,573 (60.5) | 21,210 (32.2) |
| Delivery location | 16,275 | 19,755 | 8,445 | 9,989 | 3,881 | 7,555 | 65,900 |
| Facility | 8,624 (53.0) | 18,673 (94.5) | 8,186 (96.9) | 4,012 (40.2) | 2,340 (60.3) | 2,960 (39.2) | 44,795 (68.0) |
| Home/Other | 7,651 (47.0) | 1,082 (5.5) | 259 (3.1) | 5,977 (59.8) | 1,541 (39.7) | 4,595 (60.8) | 21,105 (32.0) |
| Infant gender | 16,135 | 19,722 | 8,390 | 9,983 | 3,873 | 7,551 | 65,654 |
| Male | 8,472 (52.5) | 10,335 (52.4) | 4,353 (51.9) | 5,069 (50.8) | 2,038 (52.6) | 3,816 (50.5) | 34,083 (51.9) |
| Female | 7,663 (47.5) | 9,387 (47.6) | 4,037 (48.1) | 4,914 (49.2) | 1,835 (47.4) | 3,735 (49.5) | 31,571 (48.1) |
| Fuel used for cooking | 16,276 | 19,755 | 8,450 | 9,995 | 3,881 | 7,555 | 65,912 |
| Electricity | 50 (0.3) | 69 (0.3) | 83 (1.0) | 6 (0.1) | 434 (11.2) | 3 (0.0) | 645 (1.0) |
| Liquified petroleum gas | 51 (0.3) | 3,503 (17.7) | 2,837 (33.6) | 15 (0.2) | 0 (0.0) | 576 (7.6) | 6,982 (10.6) |
| Natural gas | 3,861 (23.7) | 3 (0.0) | 16 (0.2) | 29 (0.3) | 2 (0.1) | 27 (0.4) | 3,938 (6.0) |
| Biogas | 11 (0.1) | 95 (0.5) | 123 (1.5) | 23 (0.2) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (0.1) | 257 (0.4) |
| Kerosene | 61 (0.4) | 198 (1.0) | 370 (4.4) | 132 (1.3) | 6 (0.2) | 16 (0.2) | 783 (1.2) |
| Coal | 13 (0.1) | 3 (0.0) | 61 (0.7) | 4 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (0.0) | 84 (0.1) |
| Charcoal | 3 (0.0) | 2 (0.0) | 15 (0.2) | 733 (7.3) | 1,306 (33.7) | 0 (0.0) | 2,059 (3.1) |
| Wood | 11,968 (73.5) | 11,735 (59.4) | 4,589 (54.3) | 9,033 (90.4) | 2,120 (54.6) | 6,925 (91.7) | 46,370 (70.4) |
| Straw, etc. | 84 (0.5) | 369 (1.9) | 98 (1.2) | 18 (0.2) | 1 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 570 (0.9) |
| Agricultural crop | 19 (0.1) | 2,398 (12.1) | 179 (2.1) | 2 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2,598 (3.9) |
| Animal dung | 154 (0.9) | 1,380 (7.0) | 78 (0.9) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1,612 (2.4) |
| No food cooked in household/other | 1 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 12 (0.3) | 0 (0.0) | 14 (0.0) |
| Smoking in primary household | 16,272 | 19,667 | 8,439 | 9,993 | 3,858 | 7,555 | 65,784 |
| Daily | 5,967 (36.7) | 3,446 (17.5) | 2,297 (27.2) | 905 (9.1) | 1,065 (27.6) | 123 (1.6) | 13,803 (21.0) |
| Less than daily | 259 (1.6) | 982 (5.0) | 1,681 (19.9) | 1,537 (15.4) | 232 (6.0) | 370 (4.9) | 5,061 (7.7) |
| No smoking | 10,046 (61.7) | 15,239 (77.5) | 4,461 (52.9) | 7,551 (75.6) | 2,561 (66.4) | 7,062 (93.5) | 46,920 (71.3) |
| Cooking location for primary household | 16,272 | 19,666 | 8,430 | 9,992 | 3,858 | 7,555 | 65,773 |
| In the house | 4,010 (24.6) | 19,280 (98.0) | 7,768 (92.1) | 2,693 (27.0) | 860 (22.3) | 956 (12.7) | 35,567 (54.1) |
| In a separate building | 9,149 (56.2) | 284 (1.4) | 559 (6.6) | 6,930 (69.4) | 2,462 (63.8) | 3,424 (45.3) | 22,808 (34.7) |
| Outdoors | 3,110 (19.1) | 100 (0.5) | 102 (1.2) | 367 (3.7) | 519 (13.5) | 3,172 (42.0) | 7,370 (11.2) |
| Other | 3 (0.0) | 2 (0.0) | 1 (0.0) | 2 (0.0) | 17 (0.4) | 3 (0.0) | 28 (0.0) |