| Study name | Age dyslexia risk (control) | Sample size dyslexia risk (control) | Outcome construct (indicator) | Effect size (d) | Recruitment scheme | Socio economic background |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Note. BAS = British Ability Scales; Bayley MDI = Bayley Mental Developmental Index; BNT = Boston Naming Test; BPVS = British Picture Vocabulary Scale; CELF = Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals; CN Rep = Children’s Test of Nonword Repetition; Comp = comprehension; DAS = Differential Ability Scales; CPM = Colored Progressive Matrices; DEAP = Diagnostic Evaluation of Articulation and Phonology; GORT = Gray Oral Reading Tests; K-BIT = Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test; m-ABC = Movement Assessment Battery for Children; M CDI = MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories; NARA = Neale Analysis of Reading Ability; NEPSY = Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment; PA = phonological awareness; PCC = percentage consonants correct; Phon Aw = phonological awareness; Phon memory = phonological memory; PPVT = Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; RAN = rapid naming; SON-R = Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence tests; vSTM = verbal short-term memory; WAIS = Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; WPPSI = Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence; WISC = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children; WJ = Woodcock Johnson; WOLD = Wechsler Objective Language Dimensions; WORD = Wechsler Objective Reading Dimensions; Word ID = word identification; WRMT= Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests; YARC = York Assessment of Reading for Comprehension. | ||||||
| Aro et al. 2012 (3) | 5 (5) | 107 (91) | Vocabulary knowledge (expressive vocabulary BNT) | −.40 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental education level between the groups |
| Vocabulary knowledge (M CDI voc production) | ||||||
| 2 years 6 months (2 years 6 months) | 107 (92) | Grammar (morphological skills) | −.26 | |||
| 5 (5) | IQ (WPPSI performance) | −.46 | ||||
| 8 (8) | Social skills (basic social skills) | −.07 | ||||
| 5 (5) | Visual skills (visual matching and visual motor precision | .04 | ||||
| 8 (8) | from NEPSY) | −.30 | ||||
| Word reading (reading fluency of text containing 25 sentences) | −.59 | |||||
| Aro et al. 2009 (3) | 8 (8) | 101 (89) | IQ (WISC IQ) | −.25 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental education level between the groups |
| Language comprehension | −.44 | |||||
| (general language comprehension tests) | ||||||
| Maternal education | −.04 | |||||
| Motor (m-ABC) | .25 | |||||
| 3.5 (3.5) | Paternal education | −.09 | ||||
| Phon Aw (general phonological skills) | −.64 | |||||
| vSTM (general memory skills) | −.39 | |||||
| Black et al. 2012 (10) | 5.52 (5.66) | 24 (27) | IQ (WJ brief IQ) | −.87 | Parental report of reading disability | No differences in parental educational level |
| Maternal education | −.16 | |||||
| Maternal skills (verbal IQ WAIS) | −.73 | |||||
| Paternal education | −.46 | |||||
| Paternal skills (verbal IQ WAIS) | −.37 | |||||
| Phon memory CTOPP phon memory (composite vSTM and nonrep) | −.77 | |||||
| Vocabulary knowledge (WJ verbal comprehension) | −1.46 | |||||
| Visual skills (WJ visual matching) | −.23 | |||||
| Word reading (WJ reading mastery test) | −.69 | |||||
| Boets, Wouters, van Wieringen, & Ghesquière, 2006a (1) | 5 (5) | 31 (31) | Auditory processing | −.35 | Self-report form | Lower education level in the at-risk parents |
| (tone in noise detection) | ||||||
| Letter knowledge | −.38 | |||||
| Phon Aw (composite PA) | −.65 | |||||
| Phon memory (nonword repetition) | −.55 | |||||
| RAN (color and picture naming) | −.62 | |||||
| vSTM (digit span) | .06 | |||||
| Boets, Wouters, van Wieringen, & Ghesquière, 2006b (1) | 5 (5) | 31 (31) | Visual processing (visual motion detection) | .19 | Self-report form | Lower education level in the at-risk parents |
| Cardoso-Martins & Pennington, 2004 (6) | 5.39 (5.3) | 67 (57) | Letter knowledge (letter name) | −.52 | — | At-risk group had similar SES |
| Nonword reading (WJ word attack) | −.69 | |||||
| Phon Aw (Lindamood) | −.26 | |||||
| RAN (mean RAN colors, letters, numbers and objects) | −.59 | |||||
| Reading comprehension (GORT) | −.78 | |||||
| Spelling (WJ spelling) | −.96 | |||||
| Carroll & Myers, 2010 | Reception year or year 1 | 46 (128) | Articulatory accuracy (DEAP) | .17 | Recruited because a parent or sibling had dyslexia | — |
| Vocabulary knowledge (expressive vocabulary CELF) | −.02 | |||||
| Grammar (sentence structure CELF) | −.05 | |||||
| Carroll & Snowling, 2004 | 62.71 (62.53) | 17 (17) | Articulatory accuracy (adapted task based on Cookie Monster from Sesame Street that mispronounce words) | −.70 | Had a parent or sibling with dyslexia | — |
| Letter knowledge (knowledge of letters and sounds) | −.02 | |||||
| Phon Aw (phoneme matching) | −.37 | |||||
| Phon memory (12 two and three syllable nonwords) | −1.30 | |||||
| Vocabulary knowledge (BPVS) | −.22 | |||||
| Word reading (word recognition early reading) | −.36 | |||||
| de Bree & Kerkhoff, 2010 (13) | 5 years 1 month (5 years 1 month) | 57 (26) | Grammar (plural marking) | −.31 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental educational level |
| IQ (Snijders et al IQ test for young children) | −.37 | |||||
| de Bree et al., 2006 (13) | 3 years 3 months (3 years 1 month) | 49 (28) | IQ (Snijders et al IQ test for young children) | −.15 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental educational level |
| Elbro & Petersen, 2004 (4) | 6 years 2 months (6 years 4 months) | 47 (41) | Articulatory accuracy (the poor parrot paradigme-pronounciation correction) | −.40 | Self-report confirmed with testing | No sing differences in parental education |
| IQ (Raven) | −.12 | |||||
| Letter knowledge (name 29 letters in Danish) | −.70 | |||||
| Maternal education | −.37 | |||||
| Nonword reading (nonword reading accuracy) | −.74 | |||||
| Paternal education | −1.37 | |||||
| 6 years 2 months (6 years 4 months) | Phon Aw (phoneme identification) | −.64 | ||||
| RAN (30 pictured objects presented three at the time [number correct per minute]) | −.47 | |||||
| 7th grade | Reading comprehension | −.56 | ||||
| 6 years 2 months (6 years 4 months) | Vocabulary knowledge (PPVT) | −.73 | ||||
| vSTM (digit span WISC) | −.37 | |||||
| 2nd grade | Word reading (word reading accuracy) | −.74 | ||||
| Eleveld, 2005 (2) | 4 years 10 months (4 years 10 months) | 117 (52) | Letter knowledge (not specified) | −.41 | Self-report confirmed by screening test | The groups were not significantly different at any of the background variables |
| Phon Aw (composite phoneme awareness tasks) | −.63 | |||||
| RAN (composite colors, objects digits) | −.58 | |||||
| Visual skills (visual matching of number letters and figures) | −.19 | |||||
| 1st grade | 67 (25) | Word reading (3 min reading test) | −.28 | |||
| Facoetti, Corradi, Ruffino, Gori, & Zorzi, 2010 | 5.85 (5.67) | 20 (67) | Vocabulary knowledge (similarities WISC) | −.07 | Assigned based on the adult dyslexia check list | — |
| IQ (block design WISC) | .06 | |||||
| Letter knowledge (identification of letters) | .05 | |||||
| Phon Aw (segmenting syllables by parsing a word into its constituent syllables) | −.05 | |||||
| RAN (RAN colors) | −1.17 | |||||
| Visual skills (visual cueing task) | −.83 | |||||
| Gerrits & de Bree, 2009 (13) | 3 years 10 months (3 years 6 months) | 34 (23) | Articulatory accuracy (percentage of consonants correct) | −.84 | Confirmed by testing | — |
| Gibbs, 2005 (5) | 6 years 1 month (6 years 1 month) | 37 (29) | Vocabulary knowledge (vocabulary WISC III) | −1.08 | Recruited through British dyslexia association | — |
| Phon Aw (phoneme deletion) | −1.54 | |||||
| 3 years 9 months (3 years 9 months) | Vocabulary knowledge (BPVS) | −1.24 | ||||
| Rhyme awareness (rhyme awareness) | −1.18 | |||||
| 6 years 1 month (6 years 1 month) | Rhyme awareness (rhyme oddity) | −1.49 | ||||
| 3 years 9 months (3 years 9 months) | vSTM (digit span) | −1.16 | ||||
| 6 years 1 month (6 years 1 month) | vSTM (digit span) | −1.31 | ||||
| Hindson et al., 2005 (15) | 54.6 (55.5) | 69 (65) | Auditory processing (speech discrimination) | −.29 | Recruited through newspaper ads | More unemployed and single parents in at-risk sample than typical sample |
| Grammar (temporal terms) | .51 | |||||
| IQ (block design) | −.71 | |||||
| Letter knowledge (multiple choice task were the child was asked to point to one out of four letters that was said by the tester) | −.64 | |||||
| 101 (68) | Phon Aw (phoneme identity task where the child should indicate if two words start at the same sound as a target word) | −.51 | ||||
| 55 (55.9) | 49 (41) | Phon memory (CN Rep) | −.60 | |||
| 54.6 (55.5) | 69 (65) | Vocabulary knowledge (PPVT) | −.79 | |||
| Rhyme awareness (recognition of rhymes) | −.71 | |||||
| Visual skills (visual matching) | −.09 | |||||
| Hosseini et al., 2013 (10) | 5.65 (5.59) | 22 (20) | Phon Aw (CTOPP PA) | −.91 | Parental report of reading disability | No differences in parental educational level |
| RAN (RAN digits) | −.27 | |||||
| vSTM (CTOPP phon memory) | −.56 | |||||
| Kerkhoff, deBree, de Klerk, & Wijnen, 2013 (13) | 1 years 6 months (1 years 6 months) | 30 (31) | Vocabulary knowledge (M CDI expressive) | −.16 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental educational level |
| Maternal education | −.05 | |||||
| Motor (age first walking) | .29 | |||||
| Vocabulary knowledge (M CDI receptive) | −.66 | |||||
| Kevan & Pammer, 2008 | 67.5 (66.52) | 20 (42) | IQ (brief intellectual ability measure Woodcock Johnson III) | −.38 | Responded to media campaigns | — |
| Letter knowledge (letter word identification WJ III) | .00 | |||||
| Koster et al., 2005 (2) | 17 months | 111 (87) | Vocabulary knowledge (number of words produced) | −.30 | Volunteers that responded to publicity campaigns | Significantly lower parental education level in the at-risk group |
| Laakso et al., 1999 (3) | 18 months | 39 (89) | Vocabulary knowledge (Reynell language production) | −.02 | Confirmed with testing | Significantly lower parental education level in the at-risk group |
| 18 months | 111 | Vocabulary knowledge (Reynell) | −.02 | |||
| Lovio, Naatanen, & Kujala, 2010 (3) | 6.7 (6.5) | 10 (9) | Letter knowledge (letter knowledge not specified) | −1.55 | Confirmed with testing | — |
| Phon Aw (NEPSY phonological processing) | −1.28 | |||||
| Phon memory (nonrep from NEPSY) | −1.22 | |||||
| RAN (RAN colors, numbers and letters) | −1.83 | |||||
| vSTM (digit span WISC III) | −.71 | |||||
| Word reading (reading syllables and nonwords) | −3.25 | |||||
| Lyytinen, Ahonen, et al., 2004 (3) | 2 years | 107 (93) | IQ (Bayley MDI) | −.11 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental education level between the groups |
| 5 years | 107 (93) | Language comprehension (verbal IQ) | −.44 | |||
| 3.5 (3.5) | 107 (93) | Sentence rep (NEPSY sentence repetition) | −.13 | |||
| Lyytinen, Aro, et al., 2004 (3) | 5 (5) | 107 (93) | Sentence rep (sentence repetition) | −.17 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental education level between the groups |
| Lyytinen, Eklund, & Lyytinen, 2005 (3) | 3.5 (3.5) | 107 (90) | Vocabulary knowledge (Reynell receptive) | −.20 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental education level between the groups |
| 18 months | 49 (49) | Vocabulary knowledge (Reynell language skills) | −.02 | |||
| Lyytinen, Eklund, Erskine, et al., 2004 (3) | 2 years | 107 (93) | Motor (Bayley motor index) | .04 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental education level between the groups |
| Lyytinen, Poikkeus, et al., 2001 (3) | 3.5 (3.5) | 106 (94) | Vocabulary knowledge (PPVT) | −.21 | Confirmed with testing | No differences in parental education level between the groups |
| McBride-Chang et al., 2008 (9) | 61.06 (61.28) | 36 (36) | Auditory processing (tone detection) | −.48 | 72 children referred to clinical assessment, out of these 36 had a family risk | — |
| Grammar (Children were required to combine familiar morphones in new ways to create new structurally legal multi-morphemic nonwords) | −.63 | |||||
| Phon Aw (syllable deletion) | −.45 | |||||
| RAN (digits) | −.37 | |||||
| Word reading (Chinese word recognition) | −.96 | |||||
| Nash et al., 2013 (14) | 3 years 7 months | 83 (69) | Articulatory accuracy (PCC) | −.12 | Confirmed with testing | Typically developing significantly higher SES than at-risk sample |
| Vocabulary knowledge (CELF expressive vocabulary) | −.37 | |||||
| Grammar (past tense test) | −.65 | |||||
| IQ (two WISC III performance subtests) | −.53 | |||||
| Phon memory (PS Rep) | −.67 | |||||
| Vocabulary knowledge (CELF basic concepts) | −.50 | |||||
| Noordenbos, Segers, Seniclaes, Mitterer, & Verhoeven, 2012 (2) | 6.93 (6.94) | 31 (30) | Nonword reading (3 min nonword reading test) | −1.28 | Confirmed with testing | — |
| Phon Aw (phoneme segmentation and phoneme deletion) | −.49 | |||||
| RAN (RAN letters) | −.52 | |||||
| vSTM (repeating words and sentences) | −.62 | |||||
| Word reading (3 min reading test) | −1.20 | |||||
| Puolakanaho, Poikkeus, Ahonen, Tolvanen, & Lyytinen, 2004 (3) | 3 years 5 months | 98 (91) | Phon Aw (PA mean; word, syllable level, phonological units) | −.52 | Confirmed with testing | — |
| Raschle, Chang, & Gaab, 2011 (11) | 5 years 11 months (5 years 7 months) | 10 (10) | Vocabulary knowledge (CELF vocabulary knowledge) | −.70 | Confirmed with testing | No significant SES difference |
| Grammar (CELF language structure) | −.31 | |||||
| Parental education | −.05 | |||||
| Raschle, Stering, Meissner, & Gaab, 2013 (11) | 5 years 9 months (5 years 6 months) | 14 (14) | Grammar (VAT inflection) | −.37 | Confirmed with testing | No significant SES difference |
| IQ (K-BIT) | −.10 | |||||
| Phon Aw (deletion) | −.63 | |||||
| Phon memory (nonrep) | −.05 | |||||
| RAN (objects) | −1.75 | |||||
| Vocabulary knowledge (CELF) | −.28 | |||||
| Richardson, Kulju, et al., 2009 (3) | 24.00 (24) | 19 (20) | Articulatory accuracy (amount of unintelligible speech) | .93 | — | — |
| 30.00 (30) | 19 (20) | Vocabulary knowledge (mean length of utterance) | −.41 | |||
| Torkildsen, Syversen, et al., 2007 | 24 (24) | 9 (17) | Vocabulary knowledge (M CDI expressive) | −.93 | Recruited through newspaper ads, diagnosed by municipal authorities in school | — |
| Torppa, Georgiou, et al., 2012 (3) | 6 years 5 months | 105 (90) | Phon Aw (composite) | −.40 | Confirmed with testing | No significant difference in education levels |
| RAN (composite objects, colors, numbers) | −.50 | |||||
| 7 (7) | 105 (90) | Spelling (spelling nonwords) | −.31 | |||
| Word reading (text reading accuracy) | −.39 | |||||
| Torppa et al., 2007 (3) | 5.5 (5.5) | 96 (90) | Letter knowledge (letter knowledge) | −.47 | Confirmed with testing | — |
| Phon Aw (phonological awareness composite) | −.48 | |||||
| Vocabulary knowledge (receptive vocabulary) | −.36 | |||||
| van Alphen, de Bree, et al., 2004 (13) | 319.17 months | 35 (27) | Grammar (plurals) | −1.00 | Confirmed with testing | — |
| Vandermosten, Boets, et al., 2011 (1) | 11.6 (11.7) | 13 (25) | IQ (Raven) | −.32 | — | — |
| Nonword reading | −2.16 | |||||
| Spelling | −2.19 | |||||
| Word reading | −2.33 | |||||
| Viholainen, Ahonen, et al., 2006 (3) | 3 years 6 months (3 years 6 months) | 13 (25) | Vocabulary knowledge (Boston naming test) | −.43 | Confirmed with testing | — |
| 3 years 6 months (3 years 6 months) | 75 (79) | Vocabulary knowledge (PPVT) | −.20 | |||
| Viholainen, Aro, et al., 2011 (3) | 8 years 6 months | 98 (85) | IQ (WISC full scale) | −.20 | Confirmed with testing | — |
| 6 years 6 months | 98 (85) | Motor (m-ABC) | .28 | |||
| 9 (9) | 98 (85) | Word reading (word list reading) | −.52 | |||
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