| Home literacy environment |
Parental education |
Reports of educational background |
| Book reading habits and availability |
Various questionnaires and self-reports |
| Parental literacy skills |
Tests of parental language and reading skills |
| General cognitive abilities and perceptual skills |
Nonverbal IQ |
Nonverbal problem-solving tasks such as Raven, WISC performance, TONI |
| Motor skills |
Tests or rating scales of motor skills |
| Auditory processing |
Speech perception, tone perception, tone in noise detection |
| Visual processing |
Tests of visual perception (e.g. Gardner), visual matching, visual cueing |
| Oral language skills |
Articulatory accuracy |
Percentage of consonants correct, percentage of intelligible speech |
| Vocabulary knowledge |
Defining words, naming pictures, parental scales such as CDI |
| Pointing at pictures (such as PPVT) |
| Grammar |
Plural marking, Past tense test, temporal terms, inflection, receptive grammar, expressive syntax |
| Phonological memory |
Nonword repetition tests such as CN Rep |
| Verbal short-term memory |
Digit span, word span |
| Decoding specific skills |
Letter knowledge |
Accuracy of letter-naming, naming letter–sound correspondences |
| Phoneme awareness |
Phoneme manipulation, phoneme detection, phoneme generation, composite tests where phoneme tasks are in majority |
| Rhyme awareness |
Rhyme oddity task, rhyme generation tasks, rhyme detection |
| Rapid automatized naming (RAN) |
Naming speed for symbolic items (objects, letters, digits or colors) |
| Literacy skills |
Word recognition |
Word reading accuracy, word reading fluency |
| Nonword decoding |
Nonword reading accuracy, nonword reading fluency |
| Spelling accuracy |
Spelling regular words, spelling irregular words, spelling nonwords |
| Reading comprehension |
Cloze tests or open-ended questions about the meaning of a text |
