Table 2.

Effect of hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives on obesity and adipocyte dysfunction

Derivatives	Model	Experimental outcome	Reference
Cinnamic acid	3 T3-L1 adipocytes	- Stimulated the secretion of adiponectin and the phosphorylation of AMPK in 3 T3-L1 adipocytes and therefore improves insulin sensitivity	[123]
	- Cinnamic acid (30 mg/kg/day) for 7 weeks	- The administration of CA to HFD-fed rats reduced the body weight gain.	[122]
	- HFD diet fed Male Wistar rats
Coumaric acid	3 T3-L1 adipocytes	- Inhibition of adipogenesis in 3 T3-L1 adipocytes.	[124]
		- o-coumaric acid inhibited GPDH activity and the expression of PPARγ, C/EBPα and leptin and then up-regulated expression of adiponectin.
	3 T3-L1 adipocytes	- p-Coumaric acid inhibited TNF-α-induced changes in levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in 3 T3-L1 adipocytes.	[125]
		- p-Coumaric acid increased the secretion of adiponectin, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) in TNF-α-treated 3 T3-L1 adipocytes
	Wistar rats fed a high fat diet.(100 mg/kg)	- Decreased body weight, liver organ, and adipose tissue weights of peritoneal and epididymal fat pads.	[12]
		- Decreased hepatic triacylglycerol and cholesterol levels.
		- Enhanced the levels of glutathione (GSH), GSH peroxidase (GPx), GSH reductase (GRd), and GSH S-transferase (GST) in the hepatic tissue
Ferulic acid	high fat diet-induced obesity in mice	- Oryzanol or ferulic acid significantly suppressed the weight gain of the high fat diet-induced obesity in mice.	[97]
		- Ferulic acid is more effectively suppressed the weight gain compared to oryzanol.
Caffeic acid	3 T3-L1 adipocytes	- Inhibitory effects on increased glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) activity and an increased insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1).	[126]
		- Reduced the levels of leptin, resistin, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha.
	High-fat diet induced obese mice (0.02 % CFA of diet (wt/wt) dose)	- Lowered body weight, visceral fat mass and plasma leptin and insulin levels.	[15]
		- Inhibited fatty acid synthase, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase and acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activities.
		- increased fatty acid β-oxidation activity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α expression in the liver
Chlorogenic acid	High-fat diet induced obese mice (0.02 % CGA of diet (wt/wt) dose)	- Lowered body weight, visceral fat mass and plasma leptin and insulin levels.	[15]
		- Inhibited fatty acidsynthase, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase and acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activities.
		- Increased fatty acid β-oxidation activity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α expression in the liver.
	Streptozotocin (STZ)–nicotinamide (NA)-induced type 2 diabetic rats CGA (5 mg/kg b.w.)	- Decreased plasma and tissue triglycerides, free fatty acids.	[104]
		- Decreased the activity of HMG-CoA reductase.
		- Prevents lipid accumulation in liver.
	Insulin resistant (fa/fa) Zucker rats (infused CGA 5 mg/Kg body weight/day)	- Fasting plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerols concentrations were significantly decreased.	[103]
	Golden hamsters (80 mg CGA/kg body weight daily given peritonially)	- Lowered fasting serum triglyceride (TG), free fatty acid (FFA), total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), glucose (FSG), and insulin (FSI).	[127]
		- Increased hepatic lipase (HL), lower contents of TG and FFA in liver and lower activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) in skeletal muscle.
		- Elevated the expression level of mRNA and protein expression in hepatic PPAR-α.
	High Cholesterol diet fed Sprague–Dawley rats (1 or 10 mg/kg/day p.o. CGA)	- Lowered total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein.	[128]
		- Up-regulated of peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor α mRNA in liver.