Table 1.

Markers of disease progression and their biological antagonists in HIV infection

Marker	Antagonist	Untreated HIV infection		Treated HIV infection
		Clinical significance	Evidence of clinical benefit following intervention	Clinical significance	Evidence of clinical benefit following intervention
LPS	Sevalamer Rifaximin	Predictor of disease progression [8]	No significant change in naïve subjects following sevelamer [72]	No association with clinical events [7, 13]	No significant change in subjects with CD4+ <350/mmc following rifaximin [74]
sCD14	Sevelamer Mesalamine Rifaximin	Predictor of disease progression in HIV controllers [9]	No significant change in naïve subjects following sevelamer [72]	Predictor of mortality [7], also in subjects with a history of AIDS [10] No association with clinical events [13]	No significant change in subjects with CD4+ <350/mmc following mesalamine [73] and rifaximin [74]
EndoCAb	Sevelamer Rifaximin	Predictor of disease progression in HIV controllers [9]	Unknown	No association with clinical events [7, 13]	Unknown
I-FABP	Not applicable	Unknown	Unknown	No association with clinical events [7] Predictor of mortality in subjects with a history of AIDS [10]	Unknown
Zonulin	Not applicable	Unknown	Unknown	Predictor of mortality in subjects with a history of AIDS [10]	Unknown
D-dimer	Mesalamine	Unknown	Unknown	Predictor of all-cause mortality in subjects on intermittent therapy [75] Predictor of mortality in subjects with a history of AIDS [10] Predictor of non-AIDS morbid events both prior to treatment initiation and at year 1 [11]	No significant change in subjects with CD4+ <350/mmc following mesalamine [73]
hs CRP	Mesalamine	Unknown	Unknown	Predictor of mortality in subjects with a history of AIDS [10] Predictor of AIDS and non-AIDS events prior to treatment initiation [13]	Unknown
sTNFRI	Mesalamine	Unknown	Unknown	Predictor of mortality in subjects with a history of AIDS [10] Predictor of non-AIDS morbid events both prior to treatment initiation and at year 1 [13]	Unknown
KTR	IDO1-inhibiting bacteria? [64]	Unknown	Unknown	Predictor of mortality in subjects with a history of AIDS [10] Predictor of non-AIDS morbid events both prior to treatment initiation and at year 1 [13] Predictor of mortality both prior to treatment and at month 6 [47] Predictor of unsuccessful immune recovery at month 12 [47]	No significant change in subjects with CD4+ <350/mmc following mesalamine [73]
IL-6	Mesalamine Chloroquine	Unknown	Contrasting results following chloroquine administration [76]	Predictor of all-cause mortality in subjects on intermittent therapy [75] Predictor of non-AIDS morbid events both prior to treatment initiation and at year 1 [11]	No significant change in subjects with CD4+ <350/mmc following neither mesalamine [73] nor chloroquine [76]

LPS lipolysaccharide, sCD14 soluble CD14, EndoCAb endotoxin core antibodies, I-FABP intestinal fatty acid binding protein, hs CRP high sensitivity C reactive protein, sTNFRI soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor I, AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome KTR K ynurenine tryptophan ratio, IDO1 indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1