Table 3.
Adjusteda Associations of Breastfeeding Duration With Executive Function, Behavior, and Social-emotional Development in Mid-childhood, as Reported by the Parent, Overall (n=1037) and Separately in Boys and Girls
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 4 (boys) | Model 4 (girls) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Any breastfeeding | BRIEF | β (95% CI), points per month of breastfeeding | |||||
| Global Executive Composite | −0.02 (−0.13, 0.09) | 0.01 (−0.10, 0.12) | 0.09 (−0.02, 0.21) | 0.10 (−0.01, 0.22) | 0.25 (0.07, 0.43) | −0.06 (−0.22, 0.09) | |
| Behavioral Regulation Index | 0.01 (−0.11, 0.12) | 0.04 (−0.08, 0.16) | 0.12 (−0.01, 0.25) | 0.13 (0.00, 0.26) | 0.22 (0.02, 0.42) | 0.01 (−0.16, 0.18) | |
| Metacognition Index | −0.04 (−0.16, 0.07) | −0.02 (−0.14, 0.10) | 0.06 (−0.07, 0.19) | 0.08 (−0.05, 0.21) | 0.28 (0.08, 0.48) | −0.14 (−0.30, 0.02) | |
| SDQ | |||||||
| Total difficulties | −0.06 (−0.13, 0.00) | −0.03 (−0.09, 0.03) | 0.04 (−0.02, 0.11) | 0.06 (−0.01, 0.12) | 0.13 (0.03, 0.23) | −0.03 (−0.12, 0.06) | |
| Prosocial scale | −0.02 (−0.04, 0.01) | −0.02 (−0.04, 0.00) | −0.03 (−0.05, 0.00) | −0.02 (−0.05, 0.00) | −0.03 (−0.07, 0.01) | −0.02 (−0.05, 0.02) | |
| Exclusive breastfeeding | BRIEF | ||||||
| Global Executive Composite | −0.15 (−0.39, 0.10) | −0.08 (−0.33, 0.17) | 0.06 (−0.20, 0.32) | 0.08 (−0.19, 0.34) | 0.36 (−0.06, 0.78) | −0.21 (−0.54, 0.13) | |
| Behavioral Regulation Index | −0.02 (−0.30, 0.25) | 0.07 (−0.21, 0.34) | 0.20 (−0.09, 0.49) | 0.21 (−0.09, 0.50) | 0.43 (−0.04, 0.89) | −0.01 (−0.39, 0.36) | |
| Metacognition Index | −0.28 (−0.55,−0.01) | −0.22 (−0.50, 0.05) | −0.08 (−0.36, 0.21) | −0.06 (−0.35, 0.23) | 0.30 (−0.16, 0.76) | −0.40 (−0.76,−0.04) | |
| SDQ | |||||||
| Total difficulties | −0.18 (−0.32,−0.03) | −0.09 (−0.23, 0.06) | 0.04 (−0.11, 0.20) | 0.05 (−0.10, 0.21) | 0.22 (−0.02, 0.45) | −0.11 (−0.32, 0.10) | |
| Prosocial scale | −0.02 (−0.07, 0.03) | −0.03 (−0.08, 0.02) | −0.03 (−0.09, 0.03) | −0.03 (−0.08, 0.03) | −0.02 (−0.11, 0.07) | −0.03 (−0.10, 0.04) | |
BRIEF is Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function. BRIEF scores are standardized to mean 50 and standard deviation (SD) 10, with higher scores representing greater executive function problems.
SDQ is Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. On the total difficulties scale, higher scores represent more difficulties (possible scores, 0-40). On the prosocial scale, higher scores represent more favorable prosocial behavior (possible scores, 0-10).
Model 1 is adjusted in linear regression for child age and sex. Model 2 is adjusted for covariates in Model 1 and gestation length, birth weight z-score, and child race/ethnicity. Model 3 is adjusted for covariates in Model 2 and for maternal age, parity, smoking in pregnancy, IQ, education levels of both parents, and HOME-SF score. Model 4 is additionally adjusted for maternal depression, employment status, and child care status at 6 months