Table 1. Notable pathogens associated with modulation of host angiogenesis.

Pathogens associated with pro-angiogenesis	Mechanisms discovered	References
Bartonella henselae	Reprogramming of human myeloid cells towards a tumor-associated macrophage–like proangiogenic phenotype.	[32]
	Bartonella adhesin A (BadA) mediates binding to fibronectin, adherence to endothelial cells, and secretion of VEGF.	[16]
	The type IV secretion system VirB/D4 translocates several Bartonella effector proteins (Beps) into the cytoplasm of infected endothelial cells, resulting in uptake of bacterial aggregates, inhibition of apoptosis, and activation of a proangiogenic phenotype.	[33]
Mycobacterium tuberculosis	Mycobacteria induce abnormal leaky granuloma-associated angiogenesis, which promotes mycobacterial growth and increases spread of infection to new tissue sites.	[6,19]
Candida albicans	C. albicans stimulates vascularization in infected brain and kidney abscesses and activates endothelial cell genes involved in chemotaxis and angiogenesis.	[34,35]
Kaposi Sarcoma Herpesvirus (KSHV)	KSHV expresses molecules that directly activate the formation of blood vessels: viral interleukin 6 (vIL-6), vCCL-1, vCCL-II, vGPCR, vFLIP, K1, K15, and KSHV miRNAs.	[17,18]
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)	CMV-secreted pUL7 carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule (CEACAM)–related protein induces angiogenesis in endothelial cells via STAT3/ERK1/2 activation and IL-6 secretion.	[36]
Hepatitis C virus (HCV)	HCV-mediates hepatic angiogenesis by stabilizing cellular HIF-1α via the NF-κB pathway to up-regulate VEGF and other proangiogenic factors.	[37]
Human papillomavirus (HPV)	HPV E6 protein inhibits p53 and stabilizes HIF-1α to up-regulate VEGF, favoring formation of new blood vessels and increasing permeability of existing blood vessels.	[38]
Schistosoma mansonii	S. mansonii soluble egg metabolites induce hepatic neovascularization by up-regulating endothelial cell VEGF as well as directly inducing endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and sprouting.	[39–41]
Pathogens associated with inhibition of angiogenesis
Bacillus anthracis	Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA) inhibits VEGF and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF)-induced endothelial cell angiogenesis.	[42]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa	P. aeruginosa hemolytic phospholipase C at picomolar concentrations is selectively lethal to endothelial cells and inhibits angiogenesis.	[43]
Aspergillus fumigatus	Down-regulation of HIF-1α, VEGF-A, bFGF, and VEGF receptors 1 and 2 is dependent on A. fumigatus secondary metabolism under the transcriptional regulation of LaeA.	[7,24]