Table 3.
Results of Group Comparisons on Neurocognitive Tests per Domain.
| ADHD + ODD |
ADHD-only |
TD |
Main effects of group |
Post hoc group comparisons (Bonferroni)a |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Measure | n | M | SD | n | M | SD | n | M | SD | ||
| Cool EF—Inhibition/Working memory | |||||||||||
| Stop task | |||||||||||
| SSRT (ms) | 40 | 293 | 60 | 42 | 263 | 70 | 52 | 250 | 63 | F(2, 128) = 4.39* | TD > ADHD+ODD; TD = ADHD; ADHD = ADHD+ODD |
| Digit Span Backwards | |||||||||||
| Maximum sequence length | 82 | 5.4 | 1.9 | 82 | 5.3 | 1.6 | 82 | 6.1 | 1.7 | F(2, 202) = 5.50** | TD > ADHD, ADHD+ODD |
| Hot EF—reinforcement processingb,c | |||||||||||
| Motor timing reward | |||||||||||
| Median RT (ms) | 77 | 14.3 | 68.0 | 76 | 17.8 | 82.6 | 76 | 22.5 | 56.5 | F(2, 251) = 0.24 | ns |
| Variability (ms) | 77 | 27.1 | 118.1 | 76 | 17.4 | 98.0 | 76 | 28.9 | 67.4 | F(2, 250) = 0.35 | ns |
| Motor timing penalty | |||||||||||
| Median RT (ms) | 77 | −0.6 | 77.4 | 76 | −5.5 | 74.0 | 76 | 1.1 | 53.2 | F(2, 252) = 0.09 | ns |
| Variability (ms) | 77 | 16.4 | 102.3 | 76 | 32.1 | 72.7 | 76 | 33.5 | 66.6 | F(2, 251) = 0.33 | ns |
| Temporal discounting | |||||||||||
| Subjective value delayed reward | 75 | 3.19 | 1.21 | 76 | 2.70 | 1.10 | 79 | 2.94 | 1.07 | F(2, 220) = 2.82 | ns |
| Emotion recognition—facial | |||||||||||
| IFE correct responses (%) | |||||||||||
| Happy | 77 | 94.6 | 5.0 | 78 | 95.4 | 4.5 | 62 | 95.7 | 4.8 | F(2, 217) = 1.02 | ns |
| Angry | 77 | 89.0 | 8.8 | 78 | 87.4 | 8.8 | 62 | 89.9 | 8.1 | F(2, 217) = 1.66 | ns |
| Afraid | 77 | 90.1 | 9.9 | 78 | 89.0 | 10.5 | 62 | 91.6 | 8.3 | F(2, 210) = 1.51 | ns |
| IFE mean RT (ms) | |||||||||||
| Happy | 77 | 642 | 149 | 78 | 623 | 133 | 62 | 604 | 123 | F(2, 165) = 1.30 | ns |
| Angry | 77 | 882 | 200 | 78 | 832 | 203 | 62 | 770 | 150 | F(2,199) = 6.29** | TD > ADHD+ODD; TD = ADHD; ADHD = ADHD+ODD |
| Afraid | 77 | 874 | 234 | 78 | 830 | 200 | 60 | 769 | 185 | F(2, 191) = 4.08 | ns |
| Emotion recognition—vocal | |||||||||||
| PR correct responses (%) | |||||||||||
| Happy | 73 | 82.5 | 12.0 | 72 | 81.1 | 14.9 | 64 | 83.3 | 13.5 | F(2, 204) = 0.44 | ns |
| Sad | 73 | 75.6 | 20.6 | 72 | 72.0 | 22.6 | 64 | 77.0 | 19.0 | F(2, 206) = 1.60 | ns |
| Angry | 73 | 87.2 | 14.5 | 72 | 85.0 | 16.2 | 64 | 87.8 | 12.4 | F(2, 209) = 0.74 | ns |
| Afraid | 70 | 45.8 | 16.9 | 70 | 44.4 | 19.7 | 63 | 40.1 | 17.8 | F(2, 196) = 1.49 | ns |
| PR mean RT (ms) | |||||||||||
| Happy | 73 | 3,063 | 643 | 72 | 3,070 | 624 | 64 | 2,823 | 617 | F(2, 192) = 3.29 | ns |
| Sad | 73 | 3,355 | 940 | 72 | 3,598 | 965 | 64 | 3,144 | 946 | F(2, 184) = 3.60 | ns |
| Angry | 73 | 2,757 | 554 | 72 | 2,802 | 487 | 64 | 2,664 | 503 | F(2, 185) = 1.19 | ns |
| Afraid | 70 | 3,174 | 641 | 70 | 3,214 | 646 | 63 | 3,004 | 722 | F(2, 185) = 1.76 | ns |
| Temporal processing | |||||||||||
| Motor timing neutral | |||||||||||
| Median RT (ms) | 77 | 979 | 96 | 76 | 982 | 89 | 76 | 994 | 80 | F(2, 229) = 0.61 | ns |
| Variability (ms) | 77 | 286 | 124 | 76 | 273 | 97 | 76 | 233 | 90 | F(2, 191) = 5.33** | TD > ADHD+ODD; TD = ADHD; ADHD = ADHD+ODD |
| Timetest | |||||||||||
| Mean absolute discrepancy (s) | 79 | 1.9 | 1.1 | 79 | 1.9 | 1.0 | 68 | 1.3 | 0.6 | F(2, 212) = 8.23*** | TD > ADHD, ADHD+ODD |
Note. ADHD = attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; ODD = oppositional defiant disorder; TD = typically developing; EF = executive functioning; SSRT = stop signal reaction time; RT = reaction time; ns = not significant; IFE = Identification of Facial Emotions; PR = Prosody.
a
Higher scores reflect better performance.
b
For the reward and penalty contrasts, difference scores are provided (neutral–reinforcement).
c
Results are provided for the group by condition interaction.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.