Table 2.
Composite domains: Tests, functions, processes, and neural substrates
| Functional Domain | Name of Test | Cognitive or Motor Process | Brain Regions Associated with Process | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abstraction | Conditional Exclusion Task† Matrix Analysis Test† Logical Reasoning † |
Abstraction and concept
formation Abstraction and mental flexibility Verbal intellectual ability |
Frontal Frontal and posterior parietal Left Temporoparietal |
Kurtz et al., 2004; Gunning-Dixon and Raz,
2003 Lee et al., 2005 Gur et al., 1982, 2000 |
| Attention | Continuous Performance Test - Number Letter Version† | Visual attention and bigilance | Frontoparietal | Kurtz et al., 2001; Ogg et al., 2008 |
| Balance | Walk-a-Line | Postural stability | Frontocerebellar | Fregly et al., 1972; Sullivan et al., 2000, 2006 |
| Emotion | Emotion Recognition Test† Measured Emotion Differentiation† |
Emotion recognition Emotion discrimination |
Temporo-limbic Fronto-amygdala |
Gur et al., 2002a, 2002b Fossati, 2012 |
| Episodic Memory | Facial Memory Test† Word Memory Test† Short Visual Object Learning Test† |
Facel memory (immediate and
delayed) Word memory (immediate and delayed) Visual object learning and memory (immediate and delayed) |
Frontal and bilateral anterior medial
temporal Frontal and bilateral anterior medial temporal Frontal and bilateral anterior medial temporal |
Gur et al., 1997; Jackson and Schacter,
2004 Gur et al., 1997; Jackson and Schacter, 2004 Glahn et al., 1997; Jackson and Schacter, 2004 |
| General Ability | Vocabulary Test† WRAT-4 Math Calculations WRAT-4 Word Reading |
General
knowledge Arithmetic Phonological expression |
Frontotemporoparietal Frontoparietal Temporoparietal |
Lee et al., 2014 Wilkinson and Robertson, 2010; Gruber et al., 2001 Wilkinson and Robertson, 2010; Christodoulou et al., 2014 |
| Working Memory | Short Fractal N-Back Test - 2 Back Version† | Attention and working memory | Dorsolateral prefrontal | Ragland et al., 2002; Rodriguez-Jimenez et al., 2009 |
| Motor Speed | Grooved Pegboard Digit Symbol |
Digit dexterity and psychomotor
speed Psychomotor speed |
Frontal Frontal |
Matthews and
Kløve, 1964; Kochunov et al., 2010 Wechsler, 2008; Gautam et al., 2011 |
Subtests of the WebCNP (Computerized Neuropsychological Testing System, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine), Gur et al., 2010
Abstraction References
Kurtz MM, Ragland JD, Moberg PJ, Gur RC. The Penn Conditional Exclusion Test: a new measure of executive-function with alternate forms for repeat administration. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 2004; 19: 191–201.
Gunning-Dixon FM, Raz N. Neuroanatomical correlates of selected executive functions in middle-aged and older adults: a prospective MRI Study. Neuropsychologia 2003; 41: 1929–1941.
Lee KH, Choi YY, Gray JR, Cho SH, Chae JH, Lee S, Kim K. Neural correlates of superior intelligence: stronger recruitment of posterior parietal cortex. Neuroimage 2006; 29: 578–586.
Gur RC, Gur RE, Obrist WD, Hungerbuhler JP, Younkin D, Rosen AD, Skolnick BE, Reivich M. Sex and handedness differences in cerebral blood flow during rest and cognitive activity. Science 1982; 217: 659–661.
Gur RC, Alsop D, Glahn D, Petty R, Swanson CL, Maldjian JA, Turetsky BI, Detre JA, Gee J, Gur RE. An fMRI study of sex differences in regional activation to a verbal and a spatial task. Brain and Language 2000; 74: 157–170.
Attention References
Kurtz MM, Ragland JD, Bilker W, Gur RC, Gur RE. Comparison of the continuous performance test with and without working memory demands in healthy controls and patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 2001; 48: 307–316.
Ogg RJ, Zou P, Allen DN, Hutchins SB, Dutkiewicz RM, Mulhern RK. Neural correlates of a clinical continuous performance test. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 2008; 26: 504–512.
Balance References
Fregly AR, Graybiel A, Smith MJ. Walk on floor eyes closed (WOFEC): a new addition to an ataxia test battery. Aerosp Med, 1972; 43: 395–399.
Sullivan EV, Deshmukh A, Desmond JE, Lim KO, Pfefferbaum A. Cerebellar volume decline in normal aging, alcoholism, and Korsakoff’s syndrome: Relation to ataxia. Neuropsychology 2000; 14:341–352.
Sullivan EV, Rose J, Pfefferbaum A. Effect of vision, touch, and stance on cerebellar vermia-related sway and tremor: a quantitative physiological and MRI study. Cerebral Cortex 2006; 16: 1077–1086.
Emotion References
Gur RC, Sara R, Hagendoorn M, Marom O, Hughett P, Macy L, Turner T, Bajcsy R, Posner A, Gur RE. A method for obtaining 3-dimentional facial expressions and its standardization for use in neurocognitive studies. J Neurosci Methods 2002; 15:137–143.
Gur RC, Schroeder L, Turner T, McGrath C, Chan RM, Turetsky BI, Alsop D, Maldjiian J, Gur RE. Brain activation during facial emotion processing. Neuroimage 2002; 16: 651–662.
Fossati P. Neural correlates of emotion processing: from emotional to social brain. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2012; 22 Suppl 3: S487–491.
Episodic Memory References
Gur RC, Ragland JD, Mozley LH, Mozley PD, Smith R, Alavi A, Bilker W, Gur RE. Lateralized changes in regional cerebral blood flow during performance of verbal and facial recognition tasks: Correlations with performance and “Effort.” Brain and Cognition 1997; 33: 388–414.
Glahn DC, Gur RC, Ragland JD, Censits DM, Gur RE. Reliability, performance characteristics, construct validity, and an initial clinical application of a visual object learning test (VOLT). Neuropsychology 1997; 11: 602–612.
Jackson O 3rd, Schacter DL. Encoding activity in anterior medial temporal lobe supports subsequent associative recognition. Neuroimage 2004; 21: 456–462.
General Ability References
Lee NR, Raznahan A, Wallance GL, Alexander-Bloch A, Clasen LS, Lerch JP, Giedd JN. Anatomical coupling among distributed cortical regions in youth varies as a function of individual differences in vocabulary abilities. Human Brain Mapping 2014; 35: 1885–1895.
Gruber O, Indefrey P, Steinmetz H, Kleinschmidt A. Dissociating neural correlates of cognitive components in mental calculations. Cerebral Cortex 2001; 11: 350–359.
Christodoulou JA, Del Tufo SN, Lymberis J, Saxler PK, Ghosh SS, Triantafyllou C, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Gabrieli JDE. Brain bases of reading fluency in typical reading and impaired fluency in dyslexia. PLOS ONE Vol 9 Issue 7 e100552
Working Memory References
Ragland JD, Turetsky BI, Gur RC, Gunning-Dixon F, Turner T, Schroeder L, Chan R, Gur RE. Working memory for complex figures: an fMRI comparison of letter and fractal n-back tasks. Neuropsychology 2002; 16: 370–379.
Rodriguez-Jimenez R, Avila C, Garcia-Navarro C, Bagney A, Aragon AM, Ventura-Campos N, Martinez-Gras I, forn C, Ponce G, Rubin G, Jimenez-Arriero MA, Palomo T. Differential dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation during a verbal n-back task according to sensory modality. Behav Brain Res 2009; 205: 299–302.
Motor Speed References
Kochunov P, Coyle T, Lancaster J, Robin DA, Hardies J, Kochunov V, Bartzokis G, Stanley J, Royall D, Schlosser AE, Null M, Fox PT. Processing speed is correlated with cerebral health markers in the frontal lobes as quantified by neurominaging NeuroImage 2010; 49: 1190–1199.
Gautam P, Cherbuin N, Sachdev PS, Wen W, Anstey K. Relationships between cognitive function and frontal grey matter volumes and thickness in middle aged and early old-aged adults: The PATH through life study NeuroImage 2011; 55: 845–855.