Table 2.
Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence surveys undertaken in free-ranging populations of Australian marsupial species. Except where noted, animals were sampled or taken from the wild via trapping or culls, and no prior clinical suspicion of toxoplasmosis existed in sampled animals.
| Species | Study location (study) | Sampling timeframe | Serological test (restrictions on antibody type detected, if any) Cut off for seropositivity |
No. seropositive/no. tested (%) | 95% CI |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus) | Perth, Western Australia (Parameswaran et al., 2009a, Parameswaran, 2008) | May 2005–May 2007 | ELISA (IgG only) OD ≥0.636a |
34/219 (15.5%) | 10.7–20.3% |
| Eastern grey kangaroo (M. giganteus) | Roma, Queensland (Parameswaran, 2008) | 2004–2005 | ELISA (IgG only) OD ≥0.636a |
0/112 (0%) | 0–3.2%b |
| Eastern grey kangaroo | Sydney, New South Wales (Parameswaran, 2008) | May 2006 | ELISA (IgG only) OD ≥0.636a |
2/65 (3.1%) | 0–7.3% |
| Macropus sppc | Queensland (Cook and Pope, 1959) | Not specified | Complement fixation test Titre ≥1:8a |
0/31 (36.7%)d | 0–10.9%b |
| Bennett's wallaby (M. rufogriseus rufogriseus) | Tasmania (Munday, 1972) | Not specified | Sabin-Feldman dye test Titre ≥1:16a |
0/1 (0%) | 0–84.2%b |
| Bennett's wallaby | Tasmaniaf (Johnson et al., 1988) | Not specified | ELISA (IgG only) OD ≥0.25a |
5/151 (3.3%) | 1.5%–7.5%b |
| Bennett's wallabyg | Tasmaniac (Hollings et al., 2013) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:64a |
2/25 (8.0%) | 2.4–25.1%b |
| Tasmania pademelon (Thylogale billardierii) | Tasmania (Munday, 1972) | Not specified | Sabin-Feldman dye test Titre ≥1:16a |
3/7 (42.9%) | 15.7–75.5%b |
| Tasmanian pademelon | Tasmaniaf (Johnson et al., 1988) | Not specified | ELISA (IgG only) OD ≥0.25a |
15/85 (17.7%) | 11.0–27.1%b |
| Tasmanian pademelong | Tasmania (Hollings et al., 2013) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:64a |
28/228 (12.3%) | 8.6–17.2%b |
| Bridled nailtail wallaby (Onychogalea fraenata) | Taunton National Park, Queensland (Turni and Smales, 2001) | 1996 | Latex agglutination test | 6/39 (15.4%) | 7.3–29.8%b |
| Black footed rock wallaby (Petrogale lateralis) | South Western Australia (Jakob-Hoff and Dunsmore, 1983) | 1979 | Indirect haemagglutination inhibition test | 0/26 (0%) | 0–12.8%b |
| Brush tailed rock wallaby (P. penicillata) | South east Queensland (Barnes et al., 2010) | July 2004–August 2005 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
3/64 (4.7%) | 1.7–12.9%b |
| Banded hare wallabies (Lagostrophus fasciatus) | Faure Island Sanctuary, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | April 2007 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/5 (0%) | 0–45.9%b |
| Spectacled hare wallabies (L. conspicillatus) | Barrow Island, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | September 2007 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/3 (0%) | 0–60.2%b |
| Quokka (Setonix brachyurus) | Rottnest, Western Australia (Gibb et al., 1966) | 1964 | Sabin-Feldman dye test Titre >1:8e |
13/37 (35.1%) | 21.8–51.4%b |
| Burrowing bettong/boodie (Bettongia lesueur) | Faure Island Sanctuary, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | April 2007 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/28 (0%) | 0–11.9%b |
| Burrowing bettong/boodie | Barrow Island, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | September 2007 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/14 (0%) | 0–21.8%b |
| Brush-tailed bettong/woylie (B. penicillata) | Upper Warren region, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | March 2006 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
9/153 (5.8%) | 3.2–10.8%b |
| Brush-tailed bettong/woylie | Dryandra Nature Reserve, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/12 (0%) | 0–24.7%b |
| Brush-tailed bettong/woylie | Batalling Forest, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/17 (0%) | 0–18.5%b |
| Brush-tailed bettong/woylie | Tutanning Nature Reserve, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/8 (0%) | 0–33.6%b |
| Brush-tailed bettong/woylie | Venus Bay Island, South Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/14 (0%) | 0–21.8%b |
| Brush-tailed bettong/woylie | St Peters Island, South Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
1/73 (1.4%) | 0.3–7.3%b |
| Brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) | Sydney (Eymann et al., 2006) | Nov 2002–April 2005 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:25a |
9/135 (6.3%) | 3.6–12.2%b |
| Brushtail possum | Myall Lake National Park, New South Wales (Eymann et al., 2006) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:25a |
0/7 (0%) | 0–36.9%b |
| Brushtail possum | Taronga Zoo grounds (non captive)-Sydney (Hill et al., 2008) | Feb 2005–May 2006 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:25a |
6/126 (4.8%) | 2.2–10.0%b |
| Brushtail possum | Blue Mountains, New South Wales (Hill et al., 2008) | Oct 2005 & May 2006 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:25a |
0/17 (0%) | 0–18.5%b |
| Brushtail possum | Queensland (Cook and Pope, 1959) | Not specified | Complement fixation test Titre ≥1:8e |
1/7 (14.3%)d | 3.2–52.7%b |
| Brushtail possum | Tasmania (Hollings et al., 2013) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:64a |
0/14 (0%) | 0–21.8%b |
| Brushtail possumg | Kangaroo Island (O'Callaghan and Moore, 1986) | March–April 1985 | Indirect haemagglutination test | 0/30 (0%) | 0–11.2%b |
| Brushtail possumh | Western Australia (Clarke, 2011) | 2006–2008 | Direct agglutination test | 0/95 (0%) | 0–3.8%b |
| Modified agglutination test (not IgM) | 0/95 (0%) | 0–3.8%b | |||
| Brushtail possum | Barrow Island, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | September 2007 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/6 (0%) | 0–41.0%b |
| Ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus convolutor) | Tasmania (Munday, 1972) | Not specified | Sabin-Feldman dye test Titre ≥1:16a |
0/3 (0%) | 0–60.2%b |
| Western ringtail possum (P. occidentalis)h | Western Australia (Clarke, 2011) | 2006–2008 | Direct agglutination test Titre ≥1:64e |
2/99 (2.0%) | 0.6–7.0%b |
| Modified agglutination test (not IgM) | 0/99 (0%) | 0–3.6%b | |||
| Common planigale (Planigale maculata) | Barrow Island, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | September 2007 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/5 (0%) | 0–45.9%b |
| Common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) | Southern Tablelands, New South Wales (Hartley and English, 2005) | 3/8/2001–25/2/2002 | Latex agglutination test Titre ≥1:32a |
1/23 (4.35%) | 1.0–21.1%b |
| Direct agglutination test Titre >1:64a |
6/23 (26.1%) | 12.6–46.7%b | |||
| Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre >1:64a |
6/23 (26.1%) | 12.6–46.7%b | |||
| Southern brown bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus) | southern Western Australia (Jakob-Hoff and Dunsmore, 1983) | 1979 | Indirect haemagglutination inhibition test | 0/3 (0%) | 0.0–60.2%b |
| Southern brown bandicoot | Queensland (Cook and Pope, 1959) | Not specified | Complement fixation test Titre ≥1:8a |
35/89 (39.3%)d | 29.8–49.7%b |
| Southern brown bandicoot | Brisbane (Pope et al., 1957a) | Feb 1951 | Complement fixation test Titre ≥1:8e |
1/1 (100%) | 15.8–98.7%b |
| Southern brown bandicoot | Brisbane, North Qld, Mt Glorius-Queensland (Pope et al., 1957a) | August 1955–February 1956 | Complement fixation test Titre ≥1:8e |
15/35 (42.9%)d | 27.9–59.2%b |
| Golden bandicoots (I. auratus) | Barrow Island, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | September 2007 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/11 (0%) | 0–26.5%b |
| Eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii) | Huon Valley, Tasmania (Obendorf et al., 1996) | July 1992–March 1995 | Direct agglutination test and modified agglutination testi Both titres ≥1:64a |
10/150 (6.7%)j,k | 3.7–11.8%b |
| Western barred bandicoot (P. bougainville) | Faure Island Sanctuary, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | April 2007 | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
0/2 (0%) | 0–70.8%b |
| Long-nosed bandicoot (P. nasuta) | Queensland (Pope et al., 1957a) | August 1955–February 1956 | Complement fixation test Titre ≥1:8e |
1/1 (100%) | 15.8–98.7%b |
| Long-nosed bandicoot | Queensland (Cook and Pope, 1959) | Not specified | Complement fixation test Titre ≥1:8a |
2/7 (28.6%) | 8.5–65.1%b |
| Greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis) | Queensland (Cook and Pope, 1959) | Not specified | Complement fixation test Titre ≥1:8a |
0/1 (0%) | 0–84.2%b |
| Northern quollg (Dasyurus hallucatus) | Kakadu National Park, Northern Territory (Oakwood and Pritchard, 1999) | Feb 1993–May 1995 | Latex agglutination test | 0/22 (0%)l | 0–14.8%b |
| Eastern quoll (D. viverrinus) | Cradoc & Judbury, Tasmania (Fancourt et al., 2014) | May 2011–July 2013 | Modified Agglutination Test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:64a |
Ranged from 77.3% to 100%m | |
| Eastern quoll | Bruny Island, Tasmania (Fancourt et al., 2014) | May 2011–September 2013 | Modified Agglutination Test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:64a |
Ranged from 9.4 to 29.4%m | |
| Eastern quoll | Tasmania (Hollings et al., 2013) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:64a |
13n/24 (54.2%) | 34.9–72.2%b |
| Spotted-tailed quolls (D. maculatus) | Tasmania (Hollings et al., 2013) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:64a |
5n/7 (71.4%) | 34.9–91.5%b |
| Western quoll/chuditch (D. geoffroii) | Batalling Forest, Western Australia (Haigh et al., 1994) | Not specified | Latex agglutination test | 2/17 (11.8%) | 3.6–34.7%b |
| Western quoll/chuditch | Julimar state forest, Western Australia (Parameswaran, 2008) | June 2007 | Modified Agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:40a |
3/23 (13.0%) | 0–26.8% |
| Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harisii) | Tasmaniac (Hollings et al., 2013) | Not specified | Modified agglutination test (not IgM) Titre ≥1:64a |
6n/18 (33.3%) | 16.3–56.6%b |
a
Cut off for seropositivity nominated by study authors.
b
Calculated by review author using Jeffrey's 95% confidence interval.
c
Seven red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) and 42 grey kangaroos (M. giganteus) sampled. Data as to which species the excluded anticomplementary sera were from was not reported.
d
Anti-complementary sera excluded from results-18 macropod sera (Cook and Pope, 1959); one common brushtail possum serum (Cook and Pope, 1959); 35 southern brown bandicoot sera (Cook and Pope, 1959); two southern brown bandicoot sera (Pope et al., 1957a, Pope et al., 1957b).
e
Cut off applied to presented data post hoc by review authors.
f
Pooled data from various locations in Tasmania.
g
Some or all samples obtained via roadkill.
h
Many possums were sampled on multiple occasions-if any individual tested positive at any time, it was included as ‘positive’; all possums that tested negative on all occasions were included as ‘negative’.
i
DAT titre <64 and no reaction on MAT classed as negative serological result; DAT ≥64 and no reaction on MAT classed as suspicious serological result; DAT and MAT titres both ≥64 classed as positive serological result.
j
A further 7/150 (4.7%) had ‘suspicious’ reactions.
k
One seropositive bandicoot appeared to have neurological symptoms when subsequently retrapped (unclear whether this was a blinded observation); one seropositive bandicoot found dead in trap on retrapping, and had histopathological evidence of T. gondii infection.
l
Two quolls had very low serological reactions (1:2 and 1:3) that the study authors thought were probably insignificant. Neither of these quolls had histological evidence of Toxoplasma gondii infection.
m
Cohort study-seroprevalence measured approximately every second month.
n
Estimated from graph in reference.