Table 2.

Adipose-derived stem cells studies conducted under various mechanical loading

Mechanical loading modality	Targeted tissue	Mechanical loading parameters (modality, strain and frequency, and duration)	Cell origin	Effect	References
Uniaxial stretch	Osteoblasts	Uniaxial 2D four-point stretch 0.24 % strain applied for 2 h for 5–10 days	Human	Osteogenic gene profile ↑ Mineral deposition ↑	[145]
		Uniaxial 2D four-point stretch 0.2 % strain with 1 Hz frequency for either 17 min/day for 10 days or 6 h for 1 day	Rat	BMP-2 and RUNX2 (after 6 h loading) ↑	[146]
		Uniaxial 3D stretch 10 % strain with 1 Hz frequency 4 h/day for 14 days	Human	Paladin gene expression ↑	[147]
		Uniaxial 2D four-point stretch 0.2 % strain with 0.5 Hz frequency 2 h/day for 7 days	Human	Osteogenic gene expression and ALP activity were increased up to day 5 but were decreased at day 7	[144]
		Uniaxial 2D flexcell tension system 10 % strain with continuous 1 Hz or rest-inserted (1 Hz with 10 s between cycles) frequency 4 h/day for 14 days.	Human	Calcium deposition ↑ both loading groups	[148]
		Uniaxial 2D clamp stretch 5 % strain with 1 Hz frequency 15, 60, and 120 min single and triplicate applications	Human	Osteogenic gene expression ↑ all strain regimes except single 15 min	[149]
		Uniaxial 3D clamp stretch 10 % strain with 1 Hz frequency 4 h	Human	Calcium deposition ↑ Osteogenic gene profile ↑	[150]
Fluid flow		Pulsatile 2D fluid shear 0.6 Pa mean shear 0.3 Pa pulse amplitude 8.4 Pa/s peak shear applied at 5 Hz frequency for 1 h	Human	NO production ↑ Osteogenic gene expression ↑	[143]
Uniaxial stretch	Tenocytes	Uniaxial 3D stretch 4 % strain with 2 h stretch followed by 6 h rest cyclically applied for 21 days	Equine	Tenogenic morphology ↑ Tenogenic gene expression ↑	[160]
Uniaxial stretch	Myocytes	Uniaxial 2D flexcell system 11 % strain with 0.5 Hz 1 h/day for 19 days	Human	Myogenic gene expression ↑, multinucleation ↑, myotubes ↑	[153]
		Uniaxial 2D stretch across post 10 % strain with 1 Hz frequency for 7 days (continuous)	Human	Cell alignment ↑	[113]
		Uniaxial 2D stretch across pistons 15 % strain with 0.5 Hz frequency for 48 h	Human	Fusion with myoblasts ↑ Cell alignment ↑	[154]
		Uniaxial 2D stretch 10 % strain with 1 Hz frequency for 24 h	Rat	Myogenic gene profile ↑	[155]
		Uniaxial 2D flexcell stretch 12 % strain with 1 Hz frequency for 48 h	Human	No significant positive effects	[152]
		Uniaxial 2D stretch 5 % strain with 1 Hz frequency for 14 days	Human	Smooth muscle differentiation markers ↑	[156]
Biaxial and uniaxial stretch		Equiaxial 2D stretch over post 10 % strain with 1 Hz frequency for 24 h	Rabbit	Myogenic gene GATA4 expression ↑	[151]
Compression	Chondrocytes	Cyclic 3D platen compression 5 % strain with 1 Hz frequency 4 h/day for 7 days	Rabbit	Calcium signaling pathways ↑ proliferation ↑ Aggrecan production ↑, collagen production ↑	[98]
		Cyclic 3D hydrostatic compression 10 MPa pressure applied with 1 Hz frequency 4 h/day 5 days/ week, 5 weeks	Porcine	Glycosaminoglycan content ↑	[158]
		Cyclic 3D hydrostatic compression 0.4 or 5 MPa pressure applied with 0.5 Hz frequency for 4 h/day, 5 day/week for 4 weeks	Human	Glycosaminoglycan content (both groups) ↑ Collagen II, aggrecan, and sox-9 gene expression (both groups) ↑	[90]
		Cyclic 3D hydrostatic compression 7.5 MPa applied with 1 Hz frequency 4 h/day for 7–21 days	Human	Chondrogenic gene profile day 7 ↑ Gene expression and viability at days 14 and 21 ↓	[159]