Table 1.
Macroscopic effects of W in higher plants.
| Plant species | Treatments | Effects/Results | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brassica rapa | Seeds sown in Magenta boxes on ½ MS medium with 50-150 mg L−1 W as Na2WO4. | Increased production of a blue substance correlated with anthocyanin accumulation. | [36] |
| B. juncea | |||
| B. oleracea | |||
| Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Steptoe (barley) | 0.25, 0.5, 1, 10, 100, 500 μM Na2WO4, 9 days. Hydroponics. | Significant reduction in root and shoot biomass at high concentrations (≥10 μM). | [44] |
| Lolium perenne (ryegrass) | Urban and forest soil amended with ammunition grade W powder (average particle size 5 μM): 1, 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000 mg kg−1. Up to 9 months. | Serious reduction of plant growth and death after two months. | [19] |
| Pisum sativum cv. Onmard (pea) | 200, 500 mg L−1 Na2WO4, up to 8 days. Hydroponics. | Inhibition of root elongation and lateral root formation, retardment of seedling growth rate and new leaf emergence. | [25] |
| Gossypium hisutum cv. | |||
| Campo (cotton) | |||
| Helianthus annuus L. (sunflower) | Processed field soil, spiked with 6,500 mg kg−1 metallic W powder, aged for six months. Diluted soil samples contained from 0 to 6,500 mg W kg−1. Plants grown for two or four weeks. | Plant total weight significantly reduced at W concentration ≥2,600 mg kg−1, root and shoot length reduced at ≥3,900 mg kg−1. | [34] |
| Avena sativa cv. Ogle (oat) | Natural soil containing 0 (control), 0.803, 2.41, 7.21, 21.7, 65.0, 195.1, and 586 mg W kg−1 dry soil. | Toxicity was recorded at ~58.6-293 mg W kg−1 dry soil, with lettuce being more sensitive than radish, followed by oat. | [53] |
| Raphanus sativus cv. Crimson Giant | |||
| (radish) | |||
| Lactuca sativa cv. Grand Rapids (lettuce) | |||
| Triticum aestivum L. var Raj4037. | Potted soil watered with 3, 9, 27, 81, 243 mg kg−1 Na2WO4.2H2O solutions plus control. Samples harvested after 60 days. | Lower concentrations (3, 9 mg kg−1) of W had promotive effects in growth, biomass, chlorophyll, carbohydrate and Mo contents, higher ones decreased them. | [35] |
| Vigna unguiculata L. Walp. var. Sephali Shikha-313 | Potted soil watered with 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 μg g−1 Na2WO4.2H2O solutions. Samples harvested after fruiting. | Lower applied doses (5, 10, 15 μg g−1) of W promoted root-shoot length. Higher doses retarded root-shoot length. | [54] |
| Brassica oleracea (cabbage) | Grown in aged W powder-spiked soil containing monomeric and polymeric tungstates provided as Na2WO4·2H2O. | Cabbage growth was impaired at 436 mg W kg−1 W soil. | [23] |
| Lactuca sativa (lettuce) |