Fig 7. Schematic representation of plausible detailed molecular mechanism of HMF-induced cell death by ROS-mediated intrinsic apoptosis pathway.

HMF treatment leads to ROS generation and Ca²⁺ release, resulting in ER stress induction. Simultaneously, HMF causes alteration of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and reduction of the Bcl-2/Bax ratio, leading to activation of caspase-3 and apoptosis progression. In contrast, ROS inhibition by NAC attenuates HMF-induced mitochondrial apoptosis in HCT-116 cells.