Table 5.

MRI sequence adaption for lung imaging

Sequence description	Type	Challenges for lung	Further improvements
T2 weighted anatomy	Fast spin echo with gating (e.g. TSE/FSE or HASTE)	Long scan time requires gating or multiple breath-holds	Self-navigation using amplitude or phase
T1 weighted anatomy	3D volume gradient echo (e.g. VIBE, LAVA) without gating	Breath-hold duration	Parallel imaging, partial k-space to reduce time of scan
Real-time motion	Steady state (e.g. TrueFISP, bSSFP, FIESTA)	Off-resonance and cardiac artefacts	Select appropriate FOV and use specific cardiac shim
Diffusion	Echoplanar imaging	EPI artefacts; low spatial resolution	Shaped excitation to reduce volume of the tissue
Perfusion	Dynamic fast gradient echo (e.g. FLASH, FSPGR) with contrast	Has to be run in one or multiple breath-holds depending on requirements	Radial k-space to reduce motion artefacts with/without motion correction

3D, three-dimensional; EPI, echoplanar imaging; FIESTA, fast imaging employing steady-state acquisition; FLASH, fast low-angle shot; FSE, fast spin echo; FSPGR, fast spoiled gradient recall echo; FOV, field of view; HASTE, half-Fourier acquisition single-shot turbo spin echo; LAVA, liver acquisition with volume acceleration; TrueFISP, true fast imaging with steady-state precession; TSE, turbo spin echo; VIBE, volumetric interpolated breath-hold.