Appendix Table 2.

Robustness checks for instrumental variables analysis, first stage regression results for years of schooling, Malawi 2010 Demographic and Health Survey

	Years of schooling									Years of secondary schooling
	(1) 1976–1985			(2) 1978–1983			(3) 1981–1988			(4) 1977–1984
	Coef.	SE		Coef.	SE		Coef.	SE		Coef.	SE
Exposure to education policies	0.77	0.30	***	0.47	0.13	***	0.12	0.10		0.13	0.15
Ethnicity (ref. Chewa)
Tumbuka	1.62	0.27	***	1.55	0.32	***	1.49	0.29	***	1.52	0.51	**
Lomwe	0.15	0.22		0.22	0.28		0.47	0.22	*	−0.31	0.33
Yao	0.34	0.27		0.09	0.35		0.43	0.28		0.39	0.40
Ngoni	0.72	0.24	**	0.73	0.30	*	0.77	0.24	**	0.71	0.36
Other	−0.06	0.23		0.14	0.30		0.00	0.24		0.18	0.35
Religion (ref. Catholic)
Protestant	−0.71	0.14	***	−0.94	0.18	***	−0.82	0.14	***	−0.37	0.22
Muslim	−1.55	0.26	***	−1.54	0.34	***	−1.58	0.28	***	−1.55	0.38	***
Other/none	−2.52	0.40	***	−3.12	0.57	***	−2.12	0.42	***	−2.34	0.41	***
Urban	2.70	0.18	***	2.61	0.24	***	2.68	0.19	***	3.09	0.28	***
Constant	5.40	0.30	***	5.75	0.39	***	6.16	0.30	***	2.44	0.43	***
District Fixed Effects	Yes			Yes			Yes			Yes
N	7484			4625			6528			6037
F-statistic	42.63			27.00			34.66			11.17

Note:

^*p<0.05

^**p<0.01

^***p<0.001