Table 3.

Effect of time with mothers on child outcomes: Fixed-effect estimations (N = 3,234; individuals = 1,617)

Variables	Letter-Word Score (1)	Applied Problem Solving (2)	Positive Behavior (3)	Behavior Problems (4)
Total	–0.003** (0.001)	–0.004*** (0.001)	–0.006*** (0.001)	0.005*** (0.002)
Education	0.014*** (0.004)	0.014*** (0.004)	0.022*** (0.005)	–0.007 (0.005)
Structured	0.000 (0.005)	–0.004 (0.006)	0.016*** (0.006)	–0.009 (0.006)
Unstructured	–0.005*** (0.002)	–0.006*** (0.002)	–0.002 (0.002)	0.001 (0.002)

Notes: Abridged results are presented from separate individual fixed-effect regressions where the dependent variable is letter-word score, applied problem-solving scores, or positive behavior or behavior problem scores. Controls include only variables that vary between 1997 and 2002 (i.e., single parenthood, mothers’ and fathers’ education, fathers’ employment status, total household income, and neighborhood safety). Standard errors are shown in parentheses.

^**p < .01

^***p < .001 (two-tailed tests)